The Effects of School Uniforms on

Running Head: EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS



The Effects of School Uniforms on
Student Achievement and Discipline


A Proposal

Presented to the

Graduate Faculty of

Troy University

In Partial Fulfillment of

the requirements for

EDU 6691

By
C. Blayne Hardy



CHAPTER I
Introduction
The recent rise of violent attacks in some of the nation’s schools has focused an increasing amount of attention identifying ways to improve discipline and safety. Furthermore, the comprehensive mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act have caused many educators to scramble for new approaches to the delivery of high quality educational services while trying to balance the individual needs of an increasingly multicultural and diverse student body. In this environment, identifying opportunities for improving these aspects of the educational experience have resulted in a growing number of schools adopting uniform policies to help create a sense of belonging and camaraderie among their students which have shown significant promise in improving both discipline and academic performance (White, 2000) (Wilkins, 1999). In this regard, Milner (2004) reports that,
You can reduce competition and differentiation in dress by requiring school uniforms. This strategy reduces status differences by reducing the possibilities of people differing by ‘outlawing’ some kinds of variations. Requiring a standard school uniform is one way to eliminate the possibility of variation; nobody is in fashion or out of fashion (pp. 184-185).
Young people are subjected to all types of peer pressures, of course, and fashion and status symbols rank among the most important for many (Hoge, Foster, Nickell & Field, 2002) (Beckett, 2005). It is here that school uniforms can accomplish much in a highly cost-effective and straightforward fashion. According to Milner,
Uniforms can blunt some of the most blatant and damaging forms of status competition among students. To work, this strategy must be implemented in a fairly rigorous manner. Requiring jeans and tee-shirts is not enough. This will simply shift students' concern to the differences between the latest designer jeans (p. 185).
Furthermore, a standardized school uniform policy must ensure that a significant level of uniformity is achieved because these approaches are doomed to failure if students are allowed to wear expensive jewelry and accessories (Milner, 2004). It should be noted, though, that there are some important issues involved in requiring all students to wear the same uniform. In this regard, Milner cautions that,
Clearly, such rules involve suppressing certain forms of individualism and creativity. Many students will complain bitterly about the violation of their ‘constitutional rights
(p. 185).
Indeed, there are some fundamental First Amendment issues involved in restricting what students are allowed to wear and the Bill of Rights does not stop working at the schoolhouse steps (Evans, 1996). Nevertheless, such initiatives have passed constitutional muster in the past and the benefits derived from such approaches suggest that requiring all students to wear standard uniforms is a timely and worthwhile approach to improving both discipline and academic achievement in schools of all types and at all levels (Pickles, 2000). According to the general counsel of the National Association of Secondary School Principals "Clothing requirements are not considered a violation of their freedom of expression if there's a valid educational reason for imposing them" (Wingert, 1999 cited in Daughtery at p. 391).
In order to succeed, it is important for parents to get involved in supporting any school uniform initiative. As Daughtery (2002) emphasizes,
In recent years the strongest push for school uniforms has been initiated by parent groups seeking improved school safety. Often school uniforms are less expensive than the clothing that students typically wear to school (p. 390).
Despite the long-term cost savings involved, the costs associated with the initial purchase of uniforms may represent a significant burden for some families. Therefore, school districts seeking to implement a uniform policy should ensure that this issue is resolved prior to actual implementation. According to Daugherty, though, there are funding sources for such initiatives: “Grants of assistance have been available from federal or state agencies and from private sources, and graduates typically donate their uniforms to the school” (p. 391).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will examine the impact of national school uniform policies on both discipline and academic performance; therefore, a limitation is that certain qualitative considerations may not be identified. An additional limitation of the proposed study will involve the availability of relevant data from different types of schools. A delimitation of the proposed study will be the inability to generalize the findings across the board for all types of schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed study is to determine the impact of the adoption of uniform policies on the safety and academic performance in schools compared to those that have not.

Significance of the Study
According to Dwyer, Osher and Hoffman (2000), the multiple-victim shootings in rural and suburban schools in recent years have dramatically demonstrated that school violence cannot be viewed strictly as an urban issue, but rather cuts across demographic and socioeconomic lines as well. These authors emphasize that one of the proven techniques to help improve discipline in schools is the adoption of a school policy on uniforms (Dwyer et al.). Moreover, there are some other significant advantages to the adoption of a school uniform policy for all involved stakeholders, including, but not limited to, the following:
School safety.
1. Decreased violence and theft.
2. The identification of nonstudent intruders.
3. Prevention of gang attire.
4. Improved school attendance -- less embarrassment over clothing could increase attendance.
5. The safer the school, the more likely students will attend.
Academic performance.
1. Increased attention on academics (less on clothing).
2. Higher expectations from teachers.

Social benefits.
1. Uniforms may promote a sense of community and camaraderie.
2. School uniforms lessen the difference between rich and poor.
3. Less fashion-conscious school environment.
4. Reduction in clothing-related peer conflict.
Preparation for the future.
1. Uniforms can prepare students for work world where expectations are greater.
2. Uniforms create a sense of "teamwork."
3. Students are more likely to have a businesslike attitude.
School administrator benefits.
1. More time spent on instructional leadership.
2. Less time spent on clothing-related conflicts.
Parental benefits.
1. Eliminating the discussion over what to wear to school.
2. Uniforms promote efficiency and organization.
3. Less pressure from children to purchase trendy, high-priced clothing.
The foregoing benefits suggest that school uniform policies represent a timely and cost-effective approach to improving the learning environment in the nation’s schools and provide a wide range of advantages for all stakeholders.
Definition of Key Terms
Mandatory school uniform policies: Mandatory programs are usually implemented by a board of education or a similar administrative authority. Students are required to wear uniforms, although some exceptions--usually involving religious reasons--can be made; in those cases where parents cannot afford uniforms, most schools supply them (Daugherty, 2002).
Voluntary school uniform policies: Voluntary policies are typically implemented by parental consensus through local PTAs or PTOs; in this approach, parents are not required to dress their children in uniforms, despite the fact that the policy recommends them. Under voluntary programs, schools are not required to buy uniforms for students whose parents cannot afford them but most opt to do so. If children do not wear uniforms, they will not be reprimanded. A voluntary policy involves few legal issues (Daugherty, 2002).
Hypothesis
Schools that have adopted mandatory school uniform policies will outperform those that have used voluntary school uniform policies or have not implemented such a policy at all in terms of academic performance as well as enjoying a safer classroom environment. The independent variable will be the implementation of a mandatory school uniform policy; the two dependent variables will be (a) the discernible level of classroom discipline and safety and (b) academic performance levels.

CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Much of the current literature available on the subject of school uniforms deals with how to implement, enforce and maintain a consistent policy throughout the school or district without running afoul of the legal requirements that must be considered when attempting to instill such a policy. Comprehension of the countless legal standards is imperative by the institution in order to prevent lawsuits as well as a number of other challenges to the policy.
Court Cases
Challenges can be expected but the Supreme Court has upheld most policies permitting schools the option of requiring students to wear uniforms. A recent ruling from the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, San Francisco states:
The district’s uniform policies limit only one form of student expression (while leaving open many other channels for student communication), and they are consistent with the district’s goals of creating a productive, distraction-free educational environment for its students (Walsh, 2008, p. 8).
This ruling implies that as long as a district allows for other forms of student expression, such as school newspaper, student councils etc., and that the district is striving to maintain a distraction-free environment, then requiring students to wear uniforms is acceptable. In this ruling the court majority stated:
The school uniform policies were viewpoint- and content-neutral, and that…the policies passed muster as long as they furthered an important governmental interest unrelated to the suppression of free speech and had only incidental restrictions on protected speech (Walsh, p. 8).
The court decided that Clark County (the defendant in the case) met the required standards because school officials had submitted affidavits stating that the uniform policy promoted safety, enhanced the educational environment and improved student achievement.
An official from another school district across the country from Nevada’s Clark County Schools reiterates that school uniforms enhance the educational environment. Linda Rondeau, assistant superintendent of educational services at Pittsburg Unified School District states that “uniforms promote school safety and enhance the learning environment, and diminish the clothing competition” (Boutelle. 2008, p. 35). Her statement presents an additional, and important, reason for requiring uniforms, and that is to alleviate the pressure felt by many students to ‘fit in’. Peer pressure in the educational setting is a primary concern for many students. The effects of such pressure can many times lead to negative scenarios involving students, as well as for the parents and school administrators.
Many parents who decide to home-school their children cite the poor educational environment of the school setting as one of their primary purposes for teaching their children at home and a recent article states:
Most of the parents who home-school their children say that kids are able to focus solely on schoolwork because they are not distracted by peer pressure, violence, sex -- even clothing competition (Henderson, 2008, p. 124).
Boutelle states:
In an era where some parents seem unwilling or unable to draw the "clothes" line with their children, where pop culture influences kids' clothing choices as never before, and school safety--including gang violence--is at the top of everyone's minds, school uniforms and dress codes can play a significant role. But what that role should be is open to interpretation and can be a source of frustration--and skirmishes (Boutelle, p. 36).
Policies
The U.S. Department of Education published a “Manual on School Uniforms” in 1996 that acknowledged “the efficacy of school uniforms”. Mr. Clinton also promoted school uniforms that same year in his State of the Union address. Many schools have used the manual in their efforts to implement uniform policies, but only after gaining the approval of a majority of the parents whose students are affected by such policies. However, it is not only American schools that have discovered the effectiveness of uniforms, but other countries have discovered it as well. A recent report on schools in Iraq states:
Classrooms are extremely crowded, and two students must share a single desk. Still, even though packed, the school is bright, cheerful and modern. The library is well-stocked and the support staff, friendly. Students, crisply dressed in uniforms, are welcoming (Duncan, 2008, p. 18).
The current literature offers guidance for educators in regards to uniform policies with such ideas as do not include jeans and a t-shirt as part of the ensemble, and pick a set uniform and enforce the requirements without discrimination. One recent article suggests:
Despite the communicative elements of attire, which enjoy First Amendment protection, student attire that is disruptive, unsanitary, lewd, vulgar, or inconsistent with the school's objectives can be curtailed. Schools would be wise to implement and disseminate clear policies that include examples of prohibited attire (McCarthy, 2005, p. 50).
Another consideration would be that there can, and some would argue that there should be, different requirements for each gender. Two relevant court rulings have,
Upheld dress codes that have different standards for male and female attire. For example, earring prohibitions applied only to male students have been found rationally related to the school's objective of inhibiting gang influences because earrings can be used to convey gang-related messages (Barber v. Colorado Independent School District, 1995; Olesen v. Board of Education, 1987).
Studies Showing Improved Safety
The ultimate goal of the proposed study is to determine whether a school uniform policy will improve student safety and academic achievement. Other studies have shown that mandatory school uniform policies have improved safety in the school significantly. In 1995, Bill Clinton visited the Long Beach, California school district which was the first public school system in America to require uniforms. After only one year, there was a dramatic decline in “violence and discipline problems, as well as higher test scores” (Wilkins, 1999, p. 19).
During his 1999 State of the Union speech Clinton stated "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms."
Other studies have also shown that safety improved after the implementation of school uniform policies but very few studies have concentrated on the aspect of scholastic improvement along with safety. The proposed study will seek to do that. The study will have to consider other factors as well and the current literature spells out one of those factors in clear detail. That factor concerns the parents who fight either for, or against the implementation of a school uniform policy.
Evidence of such skirmishes is evident in the literature. One recent article articulates one mother’s concern over the relinquishment of parental control to governmental authorities. She states:
I question whether we are really doing our kids any favours by abdicating our authority to the school bureaucracy. Parents need to face head-on the challenges these uniforms try to cover over with grey flannel. If we have a problem with the downright sluttish dress of some of our daughters, tattoos, body piercing or outlandish hair colour, we should deal with these things ourselves (Ackerman, 2005, p. 57).
This type of attitude, however, does not take into account the overall effects of school uniforms; instead it concentrates on one individual, one student whose right to free speech might be affected. Many individuals rail against the conformity issues, while on the other hand some embrace such an environment. This is evidenced by an article written by another mother who states,
I was appalled when a minister of education ordered that secondary-school pupils should be allowed to dress in a distinct fashion that was mandated by their religious belonging. What I experienced was, frankly, a deep sense of revulsion at this insertion of a wedge of difference among youth, at a period in their lives when they should be saved from the separatist imbecilities of the so-called adult world (Soyinka, 2004, p. 6).
She went on to say, “My response was visceral and instinctive, and I realized that this move had savaged a deeply held social philosophy within me that I had always taken for granted.”
Whether students, or their parents for that matter, are for or against the imposed standards will certainly be taken into consideration during the proposed study, and it will be interesting to determine whether those individuals will feel more positively or negatively towards the policy after it has been implemented. Negative or positive attitudes should have no effects on the outcome(s) of the study as it is proposed, though certain scenarios will have an indirect effect on how the study is conducted.
An additional consideration to the school uniform policy might be the possibility of parents having the option of ‘opting out’ of the policy due to religious or other reasons. Texas has offered the opportunity where “under Texas law, school districts can require students to wear uniforms, but parents can object on philosophical or religious grounds” (Marks, 1998, p. 30).
All of the above stated considerations will be factored into the proposed study and it is hoped that the findings of the study will be conclusive enough to add to the already abundant literature currently available on the subject of school uniforms.





CHAPTER III
Methodology
To complete a comprehensive analysis of the proposed study will seek to answer, certain methodologies will be employed. A quantitative study of the data will be initiated in order to ascertain any statistical improvement in educational objectives.
Methods employed by the study will be to use questionnaires to gather necessary data. The study will observe two groups in order to provide the data necessary to come to a conclusion. The population of the two groups will be a set number of students from two separate schools. One school will have in place a uniform policy that requires the students to wear appropriate and standardized clothing during school hours. The other school will not have such a policy and will allow the students “free rein” in their choice of school attire. Each population will hail from a high school with similar demographics, and will be asked to answer the same research questions as the other group. It is especially important that each group be as similar in character as the other, so a set number of individuals from each gender will be chosen.
Additionally an age factor will be considered so that the average age of each group is as close as possible. In order to allow for a more complete study it is proposed that each group contain at least one-hundred students.
Answers to the research questions will be based on a scale of 1-5, with one being the lowest, and five being the highest. Each student will be asked to rate their experience, or lack thereof, in regards to either their wearing of uniforms or in their perception(s) of how it would be to wear a uniform. The totals for each group (for each specific question) will be compared statistically to ascertain any significant differences.

Research Questions
The research questions to be included on the questionnaire that the study will use to gather data will be (on a scale of 1-5): 1) Do you believe that uniforms help (or would help) you in your efforts to concentrate in class? 2) Do you believe that uniforms promote (or would promote) an environment conducive to learning? 3) Do you feel (or would you feel) safer when wearing a uniform? 4) Do you feel (or would you feel) that wearing a uniform would take away from the educational experience?
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be employed in the study to compare the differences between the data will be SPSS with Chi Square Analysis. “Chi Square assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups” (Research Methods, 2006).
Data Collection
The data collection process will include taking the questionnaires to the respective schools, handing them out to the appropriate students, having the students complete the questionnaires at that time, and then collecting the forms as they finish. The questionnaires can also be completed online.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
In order to receive a printed questionnaire or online access to a questionnaire, each student must submit a parental consent form. The parental consent form will be provided to the students beforehand. The consent form will spell out the guidelines for the study as well as providing the risk parameters.
The guidelines and risk parameters will be provided so that each potential subject of the study can make an informed decision as to whether to participate or not. No attempts at coercion will be attempted upon any potential subject of the study. The consent form will also contain a provision that allows for immediate withdraw from the study by any participant no longer desiring to participate. There will be no use of deception in this study as it is not necessary to further the proposed research. There will be a short debriefing at the conclusion of the study that will provide a forum for any feedback or questions from the participants.
Data Analysis
The study will employ the use of software programs that assist in research data analysis. One of the most popular of this type of software is called SPSS (initially the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).
This software has a number of advantages to offer a researcher including the ability to compare data with a number of different variables. When using this software, the data are entered into a row and column view so that each row represents an individual and each column represents a variable. The data can be manipulated to present a number of different scenarios while all specific individual data is kept a secret from the researcher. This type of software program will help eliminate any bias the researcher might have, allowing for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of the data.
The purpose of the study is to determine whether wearing school uniforms in the classroom alleviates problems with safety and violence, while at the same time enhancing the educational environment in order to improve the learning of the students in a more comprehensive manner.
The study hopes to gather data that either confirms or denies the determination, and hopes to present such conclusions in a straightforward and understandable manner for examination and analysis.