Running head: EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT IN CORRELATION TO COMBINATION CLASSES
A Quantitative Study of Educational Achievement in Correlations to Combination Classes
A Proposal Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for EAL 6691
By
Judith L. Jacobs
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of Purpose
The growing enrollment, financial constraints, and the inability to exhibit proficient ability scores on the Stanford Achievement Test-10 (SAT 10) at Landmark Elementary School has recently caused the administrators to look for other means to advance their achievement scores. An option that can be chosen is combination classes. The term “multi-grade classes” is often used in place of the term combination class, where one teacher simultaneously teaches students from two adjacent grade levels for the entire day (Mason, Burns, & Armesto, 1993). A relevant question would be is this method going to increase or decrease students’ achievement scores? Combination classes are widespread in the United States. Twenty-nine percent of the schools in the U.S. have at least one combination class. Combination classes account for 3 to 7 percent of all classes in most states (Mason & Stimson, 1994). Unfortunately, research on combination classes has not been extensive. Experimental studies comparing outcomes in combination classes to those in single-grade classes have generally found no differences; however, as several scholars have noted, theses inquires are difficult to interpret because of the methodological problem, such as nonrandom assignment of teachers and students, and the common practice of assigning higher achieving and independent students to combination classes (Mason, Burns, & Armesto, 1993). This has led many parents, teachers, and administrators to question this practice.
Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
The study will be conducted in the Dothan City School District in Dothan, Alabama, at Landmark Elementary School. Landmark Elementary is an intercity school with the population of 351 students. It is consider a low socioeconomic, transient school with a demographic of 81 percent free or reduced lunch and a minority student population of 91 percent. The increasing developmental diversity of students in classrooms today may restrict teachers’ practices, so this study may not be generalized.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of class composition on students’ achievement scores in the fourth and fifth grade combination class at Landmark Elementary. Using two single-grade classes and one combination class, three research questions will be addressed:
A. In comparison to the 4th-grade control group’s achievement scores, did the 4th-grade treatment group’s achievement scores increase due to the exposure of two different curriculum levels?
B. In comparison to the 5th-grade control group’s achievement scores, did the 5th-grade treatment group’s achievement scores increase due to the exposure of two different curriculum levels?
C. Does the class composition have any impact on the success of a treatment group?
a. Do the demographics of the treatment group affect the achievement scores?
b. Does the attitude and behavior of the treatment group affect the achievement scores?
c. Does the teaching ability and experience of the teacher affect the achievement scores?
Significance of the Study
There has been a concern in the community on whether Dothan City Schools can meet the needs of high achieving students. Our hope is that this quantitative research will be helpful in the consideration of policy implementation and policy amendments. Combination/multi-grade classes have been controversial and most difficult for teachers, parents and administrators to comprehend. Several studies conducted over the past fifteen years vary significantly in the method used to select studies, the severity of their analysis procedures, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn (Guskey & Lindle, 1997).
In this field of study, there are three major researchers who are well known, Simon Veenman, DeWayne Mason, and Robert Burns. Veenman (1995) conducted a study on the cognitive and the noncongitive effects of multi-grade/multi-age classes. He found that students’ cognitive abilities were not enhanced nor did they suffer due to multi-grade/multi-age classes. In contrast Mason and Burns (1996) challenged Veenman’s findings. Their review reanalyzed the data from Veenman’s study with special attention given to the criteria used in selecting the studies and to interpretations of the evidence. Their conclusion stated that multi-graded classes had a small negative effect on achievement.
Definition of Terms
Multi-grade and Combination classes were defined in the introduction. Other terms encountered in the literature are multi-age and non-grade classes. Both terms are used to describe classes which contain a mix of ages and grade levels (Veenman, 1995).
Single-Grade class is described by only one grade level of students.
Experimental Group is the participant that is receiving the treatment to create an effect or to change the outcome.
Control Group is the participant that has no change incorporated into it, to cause an effect or change the outcome. It stays the same or is constant.
Correlation Coefficients analysis refers to the relationship between two continuous variables for which the researcher is looking.
SPSS was defined in the limitation and delimitation of the study as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, which is a computer program used for statistical analysis
BASC was defined in the limitation and delimitation of the study as the Behavior Assessment System for Children, which is a rating scale of behaviors performed by children.
SAT-10 was defined in the introduction has the Stanford Achievement Test-10 achievement test. The achievement test is given to all students in the state of Alabama to measure student performance on annual basics.
Hypothesis
The expectations are to reveal that creating a combination classes by ability and behavior, the students who are high achievers can flourish in their educational achievement scores and their individual educational needs will be challenged. The fourth and fifth grade combination class at Landmark Elementary School will increase in total math and total reading SAT-10 scores.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
The Foundation of Combination Classes
In the mid 1970’s many schools in Western industrialized countries were releasing teachers because of financial cuts and declining student enrollment due to the changing birth rates. A population shifted occurred toward the suburb school districts, which then cause a rapid increase of enrollment. Meanwhile urban school experienced a decline. As a result of these fluctuations, schools had to create an innovative approach to teaching students. The combination classroom was developed at that time to solve the short comings that the schools were about to face (Veenman, 1995).
Mason and Stimson (1994) conducted surveys in schools to help identify the determining factors of combination classes. The findings indicated shrinking budgets, year-round schooling programs, and the encouragement for multi-grade classrooms were the reasons for the adoption of a nontraditional classroom in schools across the U.S. In addition, it was discovered that nontraditional classrooms seemed to be conducted more in schools with low to average enrollment than in large schools. It was more common in rural and urban areas than suburban areas, and was found in schools with year-round calendars more often than the schools with the traditional calendar.
The Review of Research of combination Classes
Perhaps the least controversial way of expressing any overall tendency is that there is no evidence of any disadvantage to a child who is a member of a multi-grade class. The results of achievement testing indicated either the same or slightly improved scores from children in combination classes (Miller, 1991; Veenman, 1995). In addition, there seems to be a small effect in terms of social and emotional development; children seemed to like school better and be more advanced in “interpersonal intelligence” (p. 190) than their peers in single-grade classes (Lloyd, 1999).
Lloyd (1999) studied multi-grade classes in relation to the benefits of the high ability learners. She found that it was difficult to compare studies because it was evident that there were different interpretations of the definition of a high ability student. Slavin (1987) also studied the ability grouping and achievement in elementary schools. His conclusion was that the evidence did not support placement of students in the classes on the basis of ability, which is streaming or tracking. In the case of high ability students, he reported one study which specifically grouped children across a range of ability grouping, including homogeneous IQ and heterogeneous IQ. He concluded that the patterns of finding in the study “consistently favor broad” (p. 191), heterogeneous grouping plans for all students expect for the most gifted. Slavin’s final finding reported as “unequivocally refute” (p. 191) any relationship between ability-grouped classes and achievement in the elementary grades. However, forming multi-graded classes for one particular subject was supported in terms of achievement.
Rogers (1991) found that high ability learners benefit from ability grouping, which included full-time grouping, cross-grade grouping, cluster grouping, and pullout enrichment grouping. As well, high ability students in non-graded classrooms showed substantial academic gains when grouped for acceleration. Rogers does recognize that the commitment of the teachers in such an organization is a determining factor of success. However, other authors may have this viewpoint: “how teachers teach and how they work with children is more important than any single feature of organization” (Otto, quoted in Goodlad and Anderson, 1987, pp.xxii-xxiii).
Kulik and Kulik (1992) investigated Slavin and Roger’s published studies and concluded that putting children in any particular grade into homogeneous classes on the basis of a general categorization of their ability has little or no effect on student achievement. However, cross-grade grouping produced a positive effect, as did within-class-grouping when an adjustment of curriculum was made.
One of the most controversial studies was conducted by Veenman (1995). He published a best-evidence synthesis of the cognitive and noncognitive effects of multi-grade classes and multi-age classes in elementary schools. He did not consider multi-age and non-graded classes to be one in the same. Rather, a multi-age class would consist of children maintaining their grade identity but spending several years in the same classroom with older and younger classmates. In his review, he excluded any studies of non-graded classes on the grounds that it referred to a whole-school philosophy of education. However, he did include information around the world. This is where Veenman’s study becomes controversial. Mason and Burns (1996) refuted Veenman’s finding based on the method of his research. Mason and Burn felt best-evidence syntheses can be fraught with uncertainly. They felt that Veenman omitted two key factors: (a) selection bias and (b) lower-quality instruction. Mason and Burns argued Veenman’s no-difference findings were inconclusive because when comparing multi-graded classes and single-graded classes, their effects are not the same. However, they did agree with Veenman that no academic achievement differences were found. They found that multi-grade classes held instructional potential for some, but they are potentially onerous for most. Therefore, they argued that multi-grade classes lead to a negative instructional effect, that it increased teachers’ stress and that it may risk teachers’ motivation and commitment to teaching. Veenman did hold value to what Mason and Burn said and stated that his work needed “reconsideration” (1996).
Veenman reviewed his findings (1995, 1996) and published a critique of Mason and Burns literature review that concluded that combination classes at least had small negative effects. Veenman argues that his reviews (1995, 1996) lead to a conclusion that combination classes are “simply no worse and simply no better” than single-graded classes. He felt that Mason and Burns had too narrow a view of the reading and interpretations of the literature that appeared to focus (a) too heavily on faulting teachers for failing to benefit from on the “potential positive effects” of combination classes and (b) too lightly on interview research, observational studies, and a theory that would explain the no-difference achievement effects (Veenmans, 1997). Mason and Burns replied to Veenman’s (1997) critique by publishing, Towards a Theory of Combination Classes, which compares and contrast the views of both sides. Mason and Burns refuted Veenman’s view that there are no substantial effects on instruction in a combination class by stating that combination classes lead to a negative effect on instruction (Mason and Burns, 1997). In conclusion, these two sides have agreed to disagree.
Mason, Burns and Armesto (1993) discovered that teachers seemed to use one of three different approaches in teaching combination classes: a two-group approach, a whole-class approach, and a mixed approach. The two-group approach taught students as if they were in two separate classes. The whole-group approach focused on teaching the students in a large-group setting while instructing them on a common theme. The mixed approach was a combination of the two approaches in which the teacher used the whole-group model to teach science and social studies subjects and divided the students by grade levels for other subjects such as math and reading. The final results indicated that most teachers taught using the mixed approach.
The Advantage of Combination Classes
The advantages of combination classes are categorized into three groups: (a) grouping advantage, (b) academic advantages, and (c) behavioral advantages. Teachers stated in a quantitative survey that grouping advantage resulted in children being taught in a small group, smaller class sizes, increased ability to read, and fewer behavior problems. If the students were grouped correctly, the academic and behavior advantage would be more evident. Teachers stated upper grade students were able to be exposed to a review of skills when the lower grade students were taught. On the other hand, lower grade students obtained enrichment by listening to what was being taught to the upper grade. The overall motivation level of both groups increased. Lastly, children in the lower grade seemed to be better prepared for the coming up year. Behavioral advantages were indicated by the teacher when more independent work habits were exhibited, different ages learned from each other, and when the upper grade students acted as role models for the lower grade students (Appalachia Educational Laboratory and Virginia Education association, 1990).
The Disadvantages of Combination Classes
The disadvantages of combination classrooms can be describe as “double planning, double teaching, double grading, and double record keeping.” (p. 19) Teachers responded that there were several factors that cause combination classrooms to be insufficient. The number one factor was time restraint. Teachers stated that there was a lack of class time for instruction of two grades levels, insufficient planning time, not enough time for teachers to master two curricula in preparation to teach, insufficient time to effectively cover two sets of curricula, never able to catch up on written work, and insufficient time to remediate or to work on a one-to-one basis. The second factor was scheduling and grouping within the class. The third factor was the frequent experience of having difficulty teaching two curricula. This requires one group to perform independent task while the other group is being taught. The mistake made was the assumption that these students understood and could function in an independent matter. Finally, the last two disadvantages were the placement of students in combination classes and the lack of support and resources (Appalachia Educational Laboratory and Virginia Education association, 1990). In addition, principals stated disadvantages observed were the obligation for teachers to prepare two curricula, the strength of parental concerns and the negative attitude of teachers (Russell, Rowe and Hill, 1998).
Perspectives of the Combination Classroom
The single-grade format has created a biased attitude that single-grade classrooms are better than any other alternative. When schools switched from a single-grade set up to a multi-grade up set out of necessity, neither teachers nor parents were pleased. Responses from early studies show that most teachers preferred a single-grade class to a multi-grade class. Teachers in multi-grade classes were generally found to teach the grades separately for math and reading, and most principals and teachers felt when considering students’ educational progress that multi-grade classes were objectionable (Veenman, 1995). Teachers gravitated towards single-grade classrooms because a combination classroom involves more planning, preparation, organization and work, catering to a greater range of abilities and maturity, less time for meeting students’ individual needs, lack of professional training, and less satisfaction with their work (Veenman, 1995; 1996; Mason and Burns, 1995; 1996). Nevertheless, the teachers felt that some positive attitudes came from a combination classroom, such as students’ increased social skills development, the opportunities for the enhancement of learning, reinforcement of earlier learning for the upper grades, and the opportunity for children to learn through peer tutoring (Veenman, 1995; Mason and Burns, 1995: 1996).
Meanwhile principals’ attitudes have also been found to be negative. Mason and Good (1998) found principals to be not as stoutly opposed to combination classes as teachers. Given their role in supporting system’s policy and dealing with the reality of student numbers, principals’ actual perceptions might have been more negative than those they expressed. Unfortunately, parents’ viewpoint seemed to be negative as well (Veenman, 1995). However, this inquiry seemed to be more frequent in urban than rural communities. The parents’ major concerns were concerns of the level of students’ achievement. This supports the reasoning for principals being reluctant to have combination classrooms because of the parental concerns and the time and energy taken in dealing with those concerns (Mason and Good, 1998).
Administrators stated that the most common reasons for assigning a teacher to a combination classroom was first, the volunteering of a teacher; second, the teacher’s teaching experience; third, the principal’s intuition of the teacher’s talents, and lastly, being part of a teacher rotation. Although teachers mostly volunteered for the assignment, they seem to dislike the teaching of a combination class when the position was complete (Burns, Mason and Demiranda, 1993). Mason, Burns, and Armesto (1993) echoed this finding. Burns’, el al. (1993) finding concluded that teachers disapproval of the combination classroom was due to increased workload, particularly when teachers used different curriculums for each grade level in the class.
Chapter III
Methodology
Population
The first control group will include two 4th-grade classes with a cumulative number of 34 students, the second control group will include two fifth grade classes with a cumulative number of 48 students, and the treatment group will consist of one combination class with 20 fourth and fifth grade students. The students in the combination class will be chosen based on the previous school year’s SAT-10 scores, classroom performance, and behavior.
Data Collection
This quasi experimental study will consist of two control groups and one experimental group. The data will be collected from all three groups’ subjects at Landmark Elementary School in Dothan, Alabama. The continuous data will be gathered from SAT-10 achievement scores in the school years of 2006-2007, 2007-2008, and 2008-2009.
Instrumentation
A correlation coefficients analysis will be conducted using a t-test in a Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program. The fourth and fifth grade control groups will have their 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 achievement scores compared to the 2008-2009 achievement scores.
Data Analysis
The analysis will show if any changes occurred between the three different school years achievement scores. The experimental group will have their 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 achievement scores compared to the 2008-2009 achievement scores. The same analysis will discover if the students grouped in the combination class made any improvements academically. Due to the fact that this school is a transient school, students that attended any out of state schools between the years 2006-2009 will not be consider in the study.
An analysis of the combination class students’ behavior will be conduct through a behavioral rating scale called the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). The behavior scale will be conducted at the beginning and the end of the 2008-2009 school year. The BASC has a Likert scale that will rate the responses given by the teachers and parents. The BASC will indicate if any behaviors are clinically significant at the beginning of the school year. Once the BASC is conducted throughout the school year, it will indicate if the any of the clinically significant behaviors have increased or decreased due to integration of the combination class. In addition, it determines if behaviors have any influence on student achievement. Demographic data will be analyzed to determine if there is a correlation between it and students’ scores on the SAT 10 test.
Research Questions
Using two single-grade classes and one combination class, three research questions will be addressed:
D. Did the 4th-grade treatment group’s achievement scores increase due to the exposure of two different curriculum levels in comparison to the 4th-grade control group’s achievement scores?
E. Did the 5th-grade treatment group’s achievement scores increase due to the exposure of two different curriculum levels in comparison to the 5th-grade control group’s achievement scores?
F. Does the class composition have any impact on the success of a treatment group?
a. Do the demographics of the treatment group affect the achievement scores?
b. Does the attitude and behavior of the treatment group affect the achievement scores?
c. Does the teaching ability and experience of the teacher affect the achievement scores?
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
The IRS has been asked to wave the ethical treatment of human subjects because there will be no impact to the human subjects. The data collected will not affect the subjects; the data will only come from the results of the subjects’ academic performance.
References
Appalachia Educational Laboratory & Virginia Education Association. (1990, September). Teaching combined grade classes: Real problems and promising practices. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED339557)
Burns, R., Mason, D. A. & Demiranda, M. A. (1993). How elementary principals assign teachers and students to combination classes. Riverside, CA: University of California, California Educational Research Cooperative.
Goodlad, J.I., & Anderson, R.H. (1987). The non-graded elementary school: A retrospective review. Repot No.33. Baltimotre, MD: Johns Hopkins University.
Guskey, T. R. & Lindle, J. C. (1997). Research on multi-age/multi-grade classes: Report to the teaching and learning issues group. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky, College of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction services No. ED420915)
Lloyd, L. (1999). Multi-age classes and high ability students. Review of Educational Research, 69(2), 187-212.
Mason, D. A., & Burns R.B. (1995). Teachers’ view of combination classes. Journal of Educational Research, 89, 36-45.
Mason, D. A., & Burns R. B. (1996). “Simply no worse and simply no better” may simply be wrong: A critique of Veeman’s conclusion about multigrade classes. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 307.
Mason, D. A. & Burns, R. B. (1997). Toward a theory of combination classes. Educational Research and Evaluation, 3(4), 281.
Mason, D. A., Burns, R. B., & Armesto, J. (1993). Teachers’ views about combination classes. Riverside, CA: University of California, California Educational Research Cooperative.
Mason, D. A., & Good, T. L. (1998). Mathematics instruction in combination and single-grade classes: An exploratory investigation. Teachers College Record.
Mason, D. A. & Stimson, J. (1994). A national survey of combination and nongraded classes. Riverside, CA: University of California, California Educational Research Cooperative.
Miller, B. A. (1991). A review of the qualitative research on multigrade instruction. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. Ed342563)
Kulik, J.A., & Kulik, C.L.C. (1992). Meta-analytic findings on grouping programs. Gifted Child Quarterly, 36(2), 73-77.
Rogers, K.B. (1991). The relationship of grouping practices to the education of the gifted and talented learner. Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Russell, V. J., Rowe, K. J., & Hill, P. W. (1998). Effects of multigrade classes on student progress in literacy and innumeracy: Quantitative evidence and perceptions of teachers and school leaders. Australia: University of Melbourne, Centre for Applied Educational Research. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED444122)
Slavin, R. (1987). Ability grouping and student achievement in elementary schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 57(3), 293-336.
Veenman, S. (1995). Cognitive and noncognitive effects of multigrade and multi-age classes: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 65(4), 319-381.
Veenman, S. (1996). Effects of multigrade and multi-age classes reconsidered. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 323-340.
Veenman, S. (1997). Combination classes revisited. Educational Research and Evaluation: An International Journal of Theory and Practice, 3, 262-276.
Tuesday, December 9, 2008
The Effects of Attendance on Achievement in Math Classes
The Effects of Attendance on Achievement in Math Classes
A proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Lisa A. Purvee
Chapter I
Statement of the Problem
Attendance plus effort equals achievement. School is a very important part of the lives of American students. Having an education can lead to life changing opportunities. Attending school does not necessarily guarantee an excellent education. For most students, however, education begins with attending the local high school. Students are expected to attend school 175 to 180 times per year. There are many students, however, who are not attending school as much as the law requires. Some students have health problems that prevent them from attending class. Others experience difficulties at home that may prevent them from coming to school. Still others simply choose to be truant. This may be due to peer pressure or the lack of interest towards school and learning.
Students who are not present in the learning environment are much less likely to reach their full, academic potential. Students who skip class miss important material. This leads to students getting behind in their studies. Test scores begin to fall which can lead to frustration for the students. Students who experience falling test scores begin to feel apathy towards school which can lead to poorer attendance.
With some classes, it may be easy to catch up after being absent. Sometimes a hand out will be enough to get the student caught up on missed material. Math classes are a little different than other academic classes. It might be a little more difficult for students to catch up on material they have missed while being absent. Some students can read over the lesson missed, but few are able to comprehend the lesson without someone showing them how to solve math problems. This is why class attendance is so important.
Because math lessons build on each other, it is important to be in class as often as possible. Once a lesson is missed, the following lesson will seem even more difficult. Many times the previous lesson is needed for the upcoming lessons. This can be frustrating and can lead to lower test grades. Students may also feel rushed when trying to learn the material they have missed. When students feel rushed, they may get overwhelmed and lose the desire to try and catch up. Students can, however, make up the day missed by attending after school help class or tutoring. This can help with getting the student where he or she needs to be for the next lesson. Class attendance is a must when excellence is desired among students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of attendance on test scores in math classes. Administrators, teachers, and parents need to gain a better understanding of how attendance impacts students test scores in math classes. Knowing the effects of the absenteeism is a vital part in reaching solutions to this growing problem. Incentives can be established to encourage student attendance. Policies can be made to reward those who attend school regularly. Programs can be implemented to prevent students from forming the habit of truancy.
The study will compare the test scores and grade averages of students in upper level math class. Class attendance will be monitored throughout the entire school year. Most students are allowed to miss 10 days of class each year. This study will show how attendance affects test scores in upper level math classes.
Significance of the Study
There have been many times when a parent will call a parent-teacher conference to discuss her child’s math grades. The child’s grades are low and do not seem to be getting better. As the conference begins, the teacher explains that the student has been absent quite often—once every two weeks. Some parents do not realize that missing one day of school can lead to a domino effect of troubling times at school. Math usually builds upon itself. If one class is missed, then the following day will seem very difficult for the student. The student will have to learn two lessons in one day. This can get frustrating for the student who feels lost when the lesson is being presented.
Many students stay home from school because they do not feel well. There is a difference between not feeling well and being sick. Parents must distinguish between the two. When students complain of not “feeling good” in the morning, they may simply be tired from staying up too late. If parents understand the challenge students face when they return to school, then they may be more likely to not let their child stay home when they claim to not feel well.
Many studies have been formed concerning the effects of attendance on achievement. Few studies have been undertaken dealing specifically with math classes. Some studies have shown that attendance does not affect achievement. Others have shown that there is a positive correlation between attendance and achievement. This study will focus on math classes and how attendance affects the test scores of the students.
Definition of Terms
Calculus--a method of calculation, especially one of several highly systematic methods of treating problems by a special system of algebraic notations, as differential or integral calculus.
Trigonometry-- the branch of mathematics that deals with the relations between the sides and angles of plane or spherical triangles, and the calculations based on them.
Attendance—being present in the classroom during instruction.
Test scores--the scores of the tests taken in the classroom.
Refusal behavior—all attempts to miss school.
Limitations
Dothan High School and Northview High School are located in Dothan, Alabama. Dothan is located in the southern region of Alabama. Both schools have approximately 1,300 students. The study will focus on the upper level math classes. These classes are usually chosen by the students, and their parents, for honors and advanced diplomas. Students who choose to take these upper level math classes will more likely strive for excellence in the class. The classes will consist of 25 students. The researcher will be investigating four classes. Two classes will be Trigonometry. The other two classes will be Calculus. Both teachers are veteran teachers and they have been teaching these courses for over 10 years.
Students who attend help classes with their teacher after school will be considered present for the day they have missed. If students are willing to stay after school to gain a better understanding of the material missed, then they are more likely to do better than those who do not take the time to stay after school for tutoring.
Hypothesis
Student attendance positively affects test scores. The more students attend class, the higher their test scores. The study will show that students who attend most often will have higher test averages than those who miss class.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Positive Findings
There have been many studies focusing on attendance and achievement; however, little if any has focused on how attendance affects high school students enrolled in upper level mathematics courses. The following support the hypothesis of this quantitative study. These studies range from elementary level classes to college level courses.
Robert E. Ledman and Felix Kamuche (2002) conducted a two year study on how attendance affects test performance and student learning in a college statistics course. The study was conducted on a college level, but none the less, showed that attendance affects test scores. Their study supported the hypothesis that attendance positively affects test scores.
The correlation between student test performance and number of absences was 0.90. That correlation suggests a very strong linear relationship between the number of student absences and their test performance. (2002)
It would seem obvious that the more classes one misses, the lower the test scores one receives. Students may not realize that missing just a few classes can have a detrimental effect on academic performance. Ledman and Kamuche (2002) found “that student test performance declined significantly after more than one absence.” We must note that there is a difference in college courses and high school classes. College courses last for only one semester, while high school classes generally last two semesters. Missing two classes in high school may not have as big of an impact as missing two classes in college. While this article focuses on college courses, it shows how important class attendance is to test performance.
Another study in a college setting supporting the hypothesis was conducted in a General Psychology course. Clump, Bauer, and Alex’s (2003) study looked at how attendance on unannounced quiz days affected unit test scores and overall test scores in the class. They found that students who were present on the day of a quiz scored better on the test taken later covering the same material.
There was a significant effect of attendance on overall test scores in the class. The students who were present for all three quizzes had significantly higher overall test scores than other students. The current study demonstrates the importance of attendance on both immediate test scores and overall test scores. . . student attendance remains essential for success in a course. (2003)
While attendance does not guarantee an A in the class, class attendance is imperative for success to be achieved.
Gump’s (2005) study was held in a college setting. Steven E. Gump found the same results when he studied 300 undergraduate students. One class, Introduction to the Japanese Culture, gave a great example of how attendance affects grades. From fall of 2001 to spring of 2003 students with zero absences had a final grade average of 89.2. Students with more than five absences had final grade averages of 64.3 and below. (Gump, 2005)
Douglas E. Roby’s (2004) study of Ohio public schools found that there was a moderate to strong correlation between attendance and achievement rates. This study looked at fourth, sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades. The greatest correlation of the four grades was the ninth grade. The correlation coefficient for ninth grade was 0.78.
Other Findings
Durden and Ellis (1995) found that test performance on nationally standardized tests did not significantly go down until after the fourth absence in the economics courses he studied.
Reasons for Being Absent
Students with medical problems are more likely to miss school due to their medical condition. One study looked at students with asthma and how their academic performance was affected by absenteeism. Sheniz Moonie, David A. Sterling, Larry W. Figgs, and Mario Castro (2008) found that “academic performance and absenteeism are strongly related.” Their findings also suggested that students with asthma are more likely to be absent than those students who do not have asthma.
Mary Wimmer (2008) explained that anxiety was one reason students did not want to attend school. While this only made up 2%-5% of students with school refusal behavior, truancy and other unexcused absences made up an additional 23%-26% of students with the this same behavior. Wimmer (2008) gave suggestions concerning what schools can do to help with refusal behavior. Suggestions include: giving awards for school attendance, working with parents to monitor attendance, and providing academic supports for students who refuse school because they have academic difficulties.
What Next?
Ledman and Kamuche (2002) suggested that more studies be conducted on different courses. They felt Mathematics was one area that needed to be studied concerning attendance and test performance. With math relying heavily on process, it is extremely important that students are present during instruction time. It is during instruction time that the process is taught.
Chapter III
Methodology
This study will focus on how attendance affects test scores in designated mathematics classes. Attendance will be taken daily in each class. The final exam will be the test with which scores will be compared. The test scores of students who are absent will be compared to the test scores of students who are not absent or have fewer absences. This process will take place throughout the entire school year.
The issue that must be addressed is whether students who are absent attended after school help class to compensate for the missed class period. This can potentially affect the missed class period. Students who attend after school help class can get the same instruction as in the classroom if ample amount of time is spent on the lesson missed.
Research Questions
1. How many days was each student absent throughout the year?
2. Did the student attend after school help class to make up for the time missed in regular class time?
3. Did the student study for the test by working problems?
4. How long did the student study?
5. Does the student strive for a grade of excellence?
6. Are there significant differences in the test scores of students with high absentee rates compared to students with low absentee rates?
Population
The study will take place in the Dothan City school system located in Dothan, Alabama. All of the students in the Trigonometry and Calculus classes of both Northview High and Dothan High will be the subjects of this study. There are approximately 100 students involved in the study. Females make up majority of the students with 70%. Seventy-five percent of this study’s total population is Caucasian. African-Americans make up another 15%. Ten percent of the students are Asian, while the remaining five percent are Latino. The majority of the students in these two classes are good students with few discipline problems.
Most of the students in this study are taking these difficult math classes in order to receive an honors diploma. These classes are not required for graduation, but are required for honors/advanced diplomas. The math students in these upper level math classes are more likely to care about their grades, and thus more likely to study for tests. While there may be some that do not have a desire for an excellent grade, most of them are expected to put forth an effort to make a good grade.
Instrumentation
It is expected that the study will show a positive correlation between attendance and the test scores of the participants. A cumulative final exam will be used to help determine if there is a positive correlation between attendance and test scores. The test scores of those with absences will be compared with those who have perfect attendance. The amount of absences will also be a factor that will be considered. Students with fewer absences will be compared to students with greater absences.
Students will be given questionnaires to respond to the research questions in this study. The results of the questionnaires will be compared to see if study habits also affect test scores. This will only be considered when students who are absent have a higher mean score compared to those who are present. Students who do not study may receive the same test scores or lower than those who are absent and do study. This would be considered a special case, but would need to be mentioned with the results of the study.
Ethical Treatment of Population
The principal of each school and the students from each class, along with their parents, must agree to take part in the study. Students will receive permission slips that describe the details of the study and how each student will contribute to the study and results. Both parent(s) and students must sign indicating that permission is granted before the study begins. Participants can later decide not to participate in the study without penalty. Confidentiality is of utmost importance. Test and questionnaire results will be kept confidential and will only be used for the specified study.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis will be used to analyze the data in this study. The following variables will be included in SPSS: the number of days each student is absent, the number of days students attended help class, the length of time students studied for the exam, does the student strive for excellence, and the students’ grades. A t-test will be implemented to determine if there is a significant difference of each variable. The researcher will focus on the correlation between attendance and students’ grades. Descriptive data will be investigated to aid in determining the findings in this study.
References
Clump, Michael A., Heather Bauer, Whiteleather Alex (2005). “To attend or not to attend: is that a good question?” Journal of Instructional Psychology 30.3: 220(5).
Durden, G.C. and Ellis, L.V. (1995). The effects of attendance on student learning in principles of economics. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 343-346.
Gump, Steven E. (2005). “The cost of cutting class: attendance as a predictor of student success.” College Teaching 53.1: 21(6). Professional Collection. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Ledman, Robert E., Felix Kamuche. (2002) “Improving student attendance: does it improve student learning? (The scholarship of teaching and learning).” Academic Exchange Quarterly 6.1:76(5). Academic OneFile. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Moonie, Sheniz, David A. Sterling, Larry W. Figgs, Mario Castro. (2008) “The relationship between school absence, academic performance, and asthma status. (Research Article)(Report).” Journal of School Health 78.3:140(9). Academic OneFile. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Roby, Douglas E. (2004) “Research on School Attendance and Student Achievement: A Study of Ohio Schools.” Educational Research Quarterly : 28(1).
A proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Lisa A. Purvee
Chapter I
Statement of the Problem
Attendance plus effort equals achievement. School is a very important part of the lives of American students. Having an education can lead to life changing opportunities. Attending school does not necessarily guarantee an excellent education. For most students, however, education begins with attending the local high school. Students are expected to attend school 175 to 180 times per year. There are many students, however, who are not attending school as much as the law requires. Some students have health problems that prevent them from attending class. Others experience difficulties at home that may prevent them from coming to school. Still others simply choose to be truant. This may be due to peer pressure or the lack of interest towards school and learning.
Students who are not present in the learning environment are much less likely to reach their full, academic potential. Students who skip class miss important material. This leads to students getting behind in their studies. Test scores begin to fall which can lead to frustration for the students. Students who experience falling test scores begin to feel apathy towards school which can lead to poorer attendance.
With some classes, it may be easy to catch up after being absent. Sometimes a hand out will be enough to get the student caught up on missed material. Math classes are a little different than other academic classes. It might be a little more difficult for students to catch up on material they have missed while being absent. Some students can read over the lesson missed, but few are able to comprehend the lesson without someone showing them how to solve math problems. This is why class attendance is so important.
Because math lessons build on each other, it is important to be in class as often as possible. Once a lesson is missed, the following lesson will seem even more difficult. Many times the previous lesson is needed for the upcoming lessons. This can be frustrating and can lead to lower test grades. Students may also feel rushed when trying to learn the material they have missed. When students feel rushed, they may get overwhelmed and lose the desire to try and catch up. Students can, however, make up the day missed by attending after school help class or tutoring. This can help with getting the student where he or she needs to be for the next lesson. Class attendance is a must when excellence is desired among students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of attendance on test scores in math classes. Administrators, teachers, and parents need to gain a better understanding of how attendance impacts students test scores in math classes. Knowing the effects of the absenteeism is a vital part in reaching solutions to this growing problem. Incentives can be established to encourage student attendance. Policies can be made to reward those who attend school regularly. Programs can be implemented to prevent students from forming the habit of truancy.
The study will compare the test scores and grade averages of students in upper level math class. Class attendance will be monitored throughout the entire school year. Most students are allowed to miss 10 days of class each year. This study will show how attendance affects test scores in upper level math classes.
Significance of the Study
There have been many times when a parent will call a parent-teacher conference to discuss her child’s math grades. The child’s grades are low and do not seem to be getting better. As the conference begins, the teacher explains that the student has been absent quite often—once every two weeks. Some parents do not realize that missing one day of school can lead to a domino effect of troubling times at school. Math usually builds upon itself. If one class is missed, then the following day will seem very difficult for the student. The student will have to learn two lessons in one day. This can get frustrating for the student who feels lost when the lesson is being presented.
Many students stay home from school because they do not feel well. There is a difference between not feeling well and being sick. Parents must distinguish between the two. When students complain of not “feeling good” in the morning, they may simply be tired from staying up too late. If parents understand the challenge students face when they return to school, then they may be more likely to not let their child stay home when they claim to not feel well.
Many studies have been formed concerning the effects of attendance on achievement. Few studies have been undertaken dealing specifically with math classes. Some studies have shown that attendance does not affect achievement. Others have shown that there is a positive correlation between attendance and achievement. This study will focus on math classes and how attendance affects the test scores of the students.
Definition of Terms
Calculus--a method of calculation, especially one of several highly systematic methods of treating problems by a special system of algebraic notations, as differential or integral calculus.
Trigonometry-- the branch of mathematics that deals with the relations between the sides and angles of plane or spherical triangles, and the calculations based on them.
Attendance—being present in the classroom during instruction.
Test scores--the scores of the tests taken in the classroom.
Refusal behavior—all attempts to miss school.
Limitations
Dothan High School and Northview High School are located in Dothan, Alabama. Dothan is located in the southern region of Alabama. Both schools have approximately 1,300 students. The study will focus on the upper level math classes. These classes are usually chosen by the students, and their parents, for honors and advanced diplomas. Students who choose to take these upper level math classes will more likely strive for excellence in the class. The classes will consist of 25 students. The researcher will be investigating four classes. Two classes will be Trigonometry. The other two classes will be Calculus. Both teachers are veteran teachers and they have been teaching these courses for over 10 years.
Students who attend help classes with their teacher after school will be considered present for the day they have missed. If students are willing to stay after school to gain a better understanding of the material missed, then they are more likely to do better than those who do not take the time to stay after school for tutoring.
Hypothesis
Student attendance positively affects test scores. The more students attend class, the higher their test scores. The study will show that students who attend most often will have higher test averages than those who miss class.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Positive Findings
There have been many studies focusing on attendance and achievement; however, little if any has focused on how attendance affects high school students enrolled in upper level mathematics courses. The following support the hypothesis of this quantitative study. These studies range from elementary level classes to college level courses.
Robert E. Ledman and Felix Kamuche (2002) conducted a two year study on how attendance affects test performance and student learning in a college statistics course. The study was conducted on a college level, but none the less, showed that attendance affects test scores. Their study supported the hypothesis that attendance positively affects test scores.
The correlation between student test performance and number of absences was 0.90. That correlation suggests a very strong linear relationship between the number of student absences and their test performance. (2002)
It would seem obvious that the more classes one misses, the lower the test scores one receives. Students may not realize that missing just a few classes can have a detrimental effect on academic performance. Ledman and Kamuche (2002) found “that student test performance declined significantly after more than one absence.” We must note that there is a difference in college courses and high school classes. College courses last for only one semester, while high school classes generally last two semesters. Missing two classes in high school may not have as big of an impact as missing two classes in college. While this article focuses on college courses, it shows how important class attendance is to test performance.
Another study in a college setting supporting the hypothesis was conducted in a General Psychology course. Clump, Bauer, and Alex’s (2003) study looked at how attendance on unannounced quiz days affected unit test scores and overall test scores in the class. They found that students who were present on the day of a quiz scored better on the test taken later covering the same material.
There was a significant effect of attendance on overall test scores in the class. The students who were present for all three quizzes had significantly higher overall test scores than other students. The current study demonstrates the importance of attendance on both immediate test scores and overall test scores. . . student attendance remains essential for success in a course. (2003)
While attendance does not guarantee an A in the class, class attendance is imperative for success to be achieved.
Gump’s (2005) study was held in a college setting. Steven E. Gump found the same results when he studied 300 undergraduate students. One class, Introduction to the Japanese Culture, gave a great example of how attendance affects grades. From fall of 2001 to spring of 2003 students with zero absences had a final grade average of 89.2. Students with more than five absences had final grade averages of 64.3 and below. (Gump, 2005)
Douglas E. Roby’s (2004) study of Ohio public schools found that there was a moderate to strong correlation between attendance and achievement rates. This study looked at fourth, sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades. The greatest correlation of the four grades was the ninth grade. The correlation coefficient for ninth grade was 0.78.
Other Findings
Durden and Ellis (1995) found that test performance on nationally standardized tests did not significantly go down until after the fourth absence in the economics courses he studied.
Reasons for Being Absent
Students with medical problems are more likely to miss school due to their medical condition. One study looked at students with asthma and how their academic performance was affected by absenteeism. Sheniz Moonie, David A. Sterling, Larry W. Figgs, and Mario Castro (2008) found that “academic performance and absenteeism are strongly related.” Their findings also suggested that students with asthma are more likely to be absent than those students who do not have asthma.
Mary Wimmer (2008) explained that anxiety was one reason students did not want to attend school. While this only made up 2%-5% of students with school refusal behavior, truancy and other unexcused absences made up an additional 23%-26% of students with the this same behavior. Wimmer (2008) gave suggestions concerning what schools can do to help with refusal behavior. Suggestions include: giving awards for school attendance, working with parents to monitor attendance, and providing academic supports for students who refuse school because they have academic difficulties.
What Next?
Ledman and Kamuche (2002) suggested that more studies be conducted on different courses. They felt Mathematics was one area that needed to be studied concerning attendance and test performance. With math relying heavily on process, it is extremely important that students are present during instruction time. It is during instruction time that the process is taught.
Chapter III
Methodology
This study will focus on how attendance affects test scores in designated mathematics classes. Attendance will be taken daily in each class. The final exam will be the test with which scores will be compared. The test scores of students who are absent will be compared to the test scores of students who are not absent or have fewer absences. This process will take place throughout the entire school year.
The issue that must be addressed is whether students who are absent attended after school help class to compensate for the missed class period. This can potentially affect the missed class period. Students who attend after school help class can get the same instruction as in the classroom if ample amount of time is spent on the lesson missed.
Research Questions
1. How many days was each student absent throughout the year?
2. Did the student attend after school help class to make up for the time missed in regular class time?
3. Did the student study for the test by working problems?
4. How long did the student study?
5. Does the student strive for a grade of excellence?
6. Are there significant differences in the test scores of students with high absentee rates compared to students with low absentee rates?
Population
The study will take place in the Dothan City school system located in Dothan, Alabama. All of the students in the Trigonometry and Calculus classes of both Northview High and Dothan High will be the subjects of this study. There are approximately 100 students involved in the study. Females make up majority of the students with 70%. Seventy-five percent of this study’s total population is Caucasian. African-Americans make up another 15%. Ten percent of the students are Asian, while the remaining five percent are Latino. The majority of the students in these two classes are good students with few discipline problems.
Most of the students in this study are taking these difficult math classes in order to receive an honors diploma. These classes are not required for graduation, but are required for honors/advanced diplomas. The math students in these upper level math classes are more likely to care about their grades, and thus more likely to study for tests. While there may be some that do not have a desire for an excellent grade, most of them are expected to put forth an effort to make a good grade.
Instrumentation
It is expected that the study will show a positive correlation between attendance and the test scores of the participants. A cumulative final exam will be used to help determine if there is a positive correlation between attendance and test scores. The test scores of those with absences will be compared with those who have perfect attendance. The amount of absences will also be a factor that will be considered. Students with fewer absences will be compared to students with greater absences.
Students will be given questionnaires to respond to the research questions in this study. The results of the questionnaires will be compared to see if study habits also affect test scores. This will only be considered when students who are absent have a higher mean score compared to those who are present. Students who do not study may receive the same test scores or lower than those who are absent and do study. This would be considered a special case, but would need to be mentioned with the results of the study.
Ethical Treatment of Population
The principal of each school and the students from each class, along with their parents, must agree to take part in the study. Students will receive permission slips that describe the details of the study and how each student will contribute to the study and results. Both parent(s) and students must sign indicating that permission is granted before the study begins. Participants can later decide not to participate in the study without penalty. Confidentiality is of utmost importance. Test and questionnaire results will be kept confidential and will only be used for the specified study.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis will be used to analyze the data in this study. The following variables will be included in SPSS: the number of days each student is absent, the number of days students attended help class, the length of time students studied for the exam, does the student strive for excellence, and the students’ grades. A t-test will be implemented to determine if there is a significant difference of each variable. The researcher will focus on the correlation between attendance and students’ grades. Descriptive data will be investigated to aid in determining the findings in this study.
References
Clump, Michael A., Heather Bauer, Whiteleather Alex (2005). “To attend or not to attend: is that a good question?” Journal of Instructional Psychology 30.3: 220(5).
Durden, G.C. and Ellis, L.V. (1995). The effects of attendance on student learning in principles of economics. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 343-346.
Gump, Steven E. (2005). “The cost of cutting class: attendance as a predictor of student success.” College Teaching 53.1: 21(6). Professional Collection. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Ledman, Robert E., Felix Kamuche. (2002) “Improving student attendance: does it improve student learning? (The scholarship of teaching and learning).” Academic Exchange Quarterly 6.1:76(5). Academic OneFile. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Moonie, Sheniz, David A. Sterling, Larry W. Figgs, Mario Castro. (2008) “The relationship between school absence, academic performance, and asthma status. (Research Article)(Report).” Journal of School Health 78.3:140(9). Academic OneFile. Gale. Troy University (AVL).
Roby, Douglas E. (2004) “Research on School Attendance and Student Achievement: A Study of Ohio Schools.” Educational Research Quarterly : 28(1).
READING RECOVERY IN TITLE I SCHOOLS
Reading Recovery in Title I Schools
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial Fulfillment of the
requirements for EDU 6691
by
Megan Flinn
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Problem Statement
In response to the increased importance of literacy among schools in the United States due to the No Child Left Behind Act, Title I schools have implemented such programs as Reading Recovery and Intervention to improve reading scores on high-stakes tests. Title I funds are stretched across many areas of a school budget in order to increase the likelihood of the school meeting Annual Yearly Progress, or at least gaining progress towards this goal. Little research has been done concerning to the supplemental literacy program that gives the best results, and saves the most money in the long run. To make the most of the government funds dispersed, it would be beneficial for schools categorized under Title I to use the most valuable supplemental literacy program. I will focus solely on the Reading Recovery program and the results it provides to struggling readers, as well the cost of the program for the school.
Purpose of the Study
The major intent of this study is to provide Grandview Elementary school with research that would enable them to utilize the funds provided by Title I to their advantage.
• Does Reading Recovery accomplish the goal of improving literacy among students who are significantly below grade level?
• What are the long range financial benefits, if any, in utilizing Reading Recovery?
• What is the time frame for visualizing student improvement from the use of Reading Recovery, if any?
• What is the time frame for visualizing the financial benefits of Reading Recovery, if any?
Significance of the Study
This study could ultimately contribute to a school system-wide use of a beneficial literacy support program that is both beneficial in student improvement and financial savings for the long run. This study can also be used as a reference for schools under Title I funds with similar characteristics to Grandview Elementary in choosing a supplemental literacy program.
If my hypothesis is incorrect, Grandview Elementary can be confident in their current use of intervention support programs and the current costs. This study will also provide more support for the search of the best educational programs to increase literacy in the United States.
Definition of Terms
Reading Recovery is a supplementary education program that aims to offer the lowest-achieving early elementary school children an effective method of English language reading and writing instruction (Clay, n.d.).
Title I — Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantaged
SEC. 101. IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE DISADVANTAGED.
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq.) is amended to read as follows:
TITLE I--IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE DISADVANTAGED
SEC. 1001. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE.
The purpose of this title is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards and state academic assessments. This purpose can be accomplished by —
(1) ensuring that high-quality academic assessments, accountability systems, teacher preparation and training, curriculum, and instructional materials are aligned with challenging State academic standards so that students, teachers, parents, and administrators can measure progress against common expectations for student academic achievement;
(2) meeting the educational needs of low-achieving children in our Nation's highest-poverty schools, limited English proficient children, migratory children, children with disabilities, Indian children, neglected or delinquent children, and young children in need of reading assistance;
(3) closing the achievement gap between high- and low-performing children, especially the achievement gaps between minority and nonminority students, and between disadvantaged children and their more advantaged peers;
(4) holding schools, local educational agencies, and States accountable for improving the academic achievement of all students, and identifying and turning around low-performing schools that have failed to provide a high-quality education to their students, while providing alternatives to students in such schools to enable the students to receive a high-quality education;
(5) distributing and targeting resources sufficiently to make a difference to local educational agencies and schools where needs are greatest;
(6) improving and strengthening accountability, teaching, and learning by using State assessment systems designed to ensure that students are meeting challenging State academic achievement and content standards and increasing achievement overall, but especially for the disadvantaged;
(7) providing greater decision-making authority and flexibility to schools and teachers in exchange for greater responsibility for student performance;
(8) providing children an enriched and accelerated educational program, including the use of school-wide programs or additional services that increase the amount and quality of instructional time;
(9) promoting school-wide reform and ensuring the access of children to effective, scientifically based instructional strategies and challenging academic content;
(10) significantly elevating the quality of instruction by providing staff in participating schools with substantial opportunities for professional development;
(11) coordinating services under all parts of this title with each other, with other educational services, and, to the extent feasible, with other agencies providing services to youth, children, and families; and
(12) affording parents substantial and meaningful opportunities to participate in the education of their children (Education, U.D.o., n.d.).
Supplemental Literacy Programs or Reading Intervention is a method of academic intervention used in the United States designed to provide early, effective assistance to children who are having difficulty learning. This was also designed to function as a data-based process of diagnosing learning disabilities. This method can be used at the group and individual level (International Reading Association, n.d.).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study will take place in Dothan, Alabama within Grandview Elementary school. This school contains grades kindergarten through fifth grade, and is classified as 93 percent free and reduced lunch under the 2006-2007 Alabama Department of Education Report Card (Alabama State Board of Education, n.d.).
Grandview Elementary school utilizes teacher assistants and the reading coach as instructors for reading intervention programs. These programs consist of a “double dip”, or re-teaching of the previous lesson in the school’s chosen reading program, as well as extra support in comprehension and fluency work among a group of three to six students at one time for a 20 to 30 minute sessions. Dependent on the student’s second grade classroom teacher’s schedule, does he or she participate in the reading intervention for a set time. Each second grade teacher has a different allotted time for the pull-out intervention, and also each second grade teacher has a varied amount of time for the pull-out intervention. For example, one teacher may choose to have the pull-out intervention time during the first 30 minutes of reading block within the class, but for only 20 minutes, while another teacher may have the pull-out intervention time later in the afternoon during science block within the class for 30 minutes.
Hypothesis
The Reading Recovery supplemental literacy program will be beneficial in significantly increasing the students’ literacy level from the previous level, of well below grade level, as well as being cost effective for Grandview Elementary under the issued Title I funds.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Previous research and academic publications concerning the Reading Recovery program have been reviewed, and overall shed a positive light on the Reading Recovery program as a tool to improve literacy among students at Grandview Elementary school who are significantly below grade level. The major intent of this study is to provide Grandview Elementary school with research that would enable them to utilize the funds provided by Title I to their advantage. In review of the following articles research was located that showed successful results in terms of improving literacy among students tested at below grade level. I also was able to review previous trials of the Reading Recovery program where achievement was reached among at risk students within a diverse population.
Reading Recovery Success
According to Vellutino, Scanlon, Small and Fanuele (2006), children at risk for early reading difficulties were identified on entry into kindergarten, and half of these children received Reading Recovery intervention two to three times a week during their kindergarten year. The other half received whatever remedial assistance was offered by their schools. These children were again assessed at the beginning of first grade, and those who continued to have difficulties in reading received either one-to-one daily Reading Recovery intervention from the beginning to the end of first grade or whatever remedial assistance was offered by their schools over the same time period. All targeted children were periodically assessed through the end of third grade. Results suggest that either kindergarten Reading Recovery intervention alone or kindergarten Reading Recovery intervention combined with first-grade Reading Recovery intervention are both useful tools for preventing early and long-term reading difficulties in most at-risk children (2006, pp. 157-169).
Author Mary K. Lose (2007) discusses the fundamental principles of a successful intervention approach, and describes the Reading Recovery intervention program as a prime example of success. She explains that a child who has been provided with the Reading Recovery intervention will respond successfully, making progress daily and learning how to lift his or her own literacy performance with skilled support from the tools learned through Reading Recovery. Lose’s (2007) article gives many strict guidelines for the intervention to be successful in increasing student achievement including a knowledgeable teacher and opportunities for the highest quality of professional development for these teachers. The author is a firm believer of Reading Recovery intervention because it is an evidence-based early intervening service (2007, pp. 276-279).
Lynn Fuchs (2006) explores the Reading Recovery intervention program through a commentary article. She discusses how Reading Recovery, over the past decade, has emerged as a promising model of service delivery at the elementary grades, with behavior and reading receiving the greatest amount of systematic attention by researchers and practitioners. The authors define the intervention and prevention program by explaining that within the context of a multilayered prevention system, Reading Recovery integrates increasingly intensive instruction and, at each layer, employs assessment to identify students who are inadequately responsive and who therefore require intervention at the next, more intensive layer in the system (2006, pp. 621-626).
Diversity Among At Risk Students
Michelle McCollin (2005) discusses the achievement of at-risk students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in the Reading Recovery intervention program. Through the authors’ research they have found that using a variety of instructional materials at different reading levels can accommodate individual reading acquisition skills. The variety needed to accommodate this strategy can be found in the Reading Recovery intervention program. She also discusses the need for an opportunity to allow students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds to acquire early literacy skills in order to close achievement gaps. Educators can encourage the reading achievement of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds by directly and explicitly attending to research-based components of early literacy, such as provided within Reading Recovery intervention (2005, pp. 41-44).
Sharif, Ozuah, Dinkevich, and Mulvihill (2003) explain the lack of adequate literacy skills among children from socially disadvantaged homes. The authors discussed their belief that high intensity intervention programs such as Reading Recovery have been shown to improve the vocabulary skills and language comprehension of children in previous studies. Their own research studies show that the impact of literacy interventions, such as Reading Recovery has been greater on disadvantaged families. Overall, they concluded that the Reading Recovery intervention at a low-income, urban child-care center was associated with significant improvements in preschool children’s vocabulary skills (2003, pp. 177-180).
Nancollis, Lawrie, and Dodd (2005) discuss a study examining the effect of Reading Recovery intervention that focused on syllable and rhyme awareness on the attainment of literacy and the development of phonological awareness skills two years after intervention. The longitudinal study compared two groups of children from deprived socioeconomic backgrounds in the United Kingdom. One group received a program of Reading Recovery intervention and one did not. The Reading Recovery intervention that was implemented, which focused on enhancing syllable and rhyme awareness, had increased effect on later literacy development (2005, pp. 325-335).
Summary
Previous publications have researched and reported short-term programs of Reading Recovery programs and their successfulness in terms of student achievement and time frame for results. The previously reviewed articles have shown favor for the Reading Recovery program in achieving the goal of improving literacy among students who are significantly below grade level at Grandview Elementary school. The reviews provided insight into an ideal time frame for visible results in student achievement. Overall, I was unable to locate previous research or publications concerning the economics of the Reading Recovery program.
Chapter III
Methodology
In order to test the hypothesis, previously stated, a quantitative quasi experimental study will be conducted. Statistical information will be gathered from the collected data and will be explored to make a comparison of the affect of the Reading Recovery program with past practices for teaching similar students.
The methods used in the study will examine data gathered by literacy pre-tests finished prior to entry into the Reading Recovery program. A post-assessment will also be administered to students once they have completed the Reading Recovery program to view the growth each student has made since the completion of the program. Overall, the researcher will be searching for students who make increased achievements in literacy according to pre and post-test results. Grandview Elementary school has very diverse demographics, but students will share a similar age range – seven to nine years of age. Both boys and girls will be included in the study. Students must have scored below the benchmark score according to the initial Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, or DIBELS
Research Questions
The research questions will be answered through the analysis of the test scores. 1) Do students who are significantly below grade level have higher achievement scores in literacy after completion of Reading Recovery rather than the current intervention strategies implemented at the school? 2) Do student demographics influence literacy achievement scores? 3) Do Grandview’s school demographics influence literacy achievement scores?
Population
The study will be conducted with all second graders and those that have scored below the benchmark score on the DIBELS assessment given in the beginning of the school year. The students scoring at a low level will be the school’s primary candidates for a reading intervention program. The sample size of students in the program will be 33 students. The purpose for the reading intervention program currently provided at Grandview Elementary is to attempt to bring struggling readers up to grade level or significantly increase the literacy level. Reading Recovery versus the presently used intervention programs.
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be used in the study to test the effectiveness of Reading Recovery among second graders at Grandview Elementary will be a t-test. This will compare the mean scores of children that have taken the DIBELS assessment in the past before the intervention program with those that are taking the invention program now. The mean scores of the children’s DIBELs assessment will be used in the comparison.
Data Collection
Data including student age, race, gender, school budget, a literacy pre-test valid for the second grade level, past DIBELS scores, and current assessment scores will be collected before implementation of the Reading Recovery program.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
The parents of the students who qualify for the program must complete a parental consent form in order to participate in the study. The consent form will specify the procedure and guidelines of the research study, and it will include the risk parameters for participating. Grandview Elementary is required also to give its permission for the researcher to take involvement in its school programs and investigate the current programs taking place.
Parents of the students participating in the study must be fully aware of all parameters of the study in order to allow them to make a knowledgeable decision concerning their child’s participation in the study. Parents will also be aware of how they may withdraw their student from the study at any time that they feel necessary. The study will not include deception. In finalizing the study, parents will receive a debriefing by the researcher. At this time, parents will be given the opportunity to ask specific questions and inquire about the study’s outcomes.
Data Analysis
This quantitative study will use the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, also known as S.P.S.S. which is a software program the researcher will use to help analyze and compare the test scores of the students involved in the study. The researcher will enter the statistical data collected. The scores will be placed in columns that are appropriately labeled. Once information is correctly entered into the program, the researcher will have the ability to maneuver and shift the data in many ways to achieve varying results. S.P.S.S. will allow the researcher to reduce bias that may exist. As the researcher investigates the data, he or she will help Grandview to determine an efficient intervention program both academically and financially. Demographic data will be analyzed and compared to DIEBELS scores to determine if there is a relationship between descriptive data and scores. A t-test will be used to determine if there is significant differences in the scores of second grade students in the past with the present second graders after the Reading Recovery program has been instituted.
References
Alabama State Board of Education. (n.d.). Grandview elementary school. Report Card 2006-2007.
Clay, M. (n.d.). Reading Recovery. Retrieved from Reading Recovery Council of North America Web site: http://www.readingrecovery.org/
Education, U. D. o. (n.d.). Title I: Improving the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. Retrieved from ED.gov Web site: http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html
Fuchs, L. S. (2006). A framework for building capacity for responsiveness to intervention. School Psychology Review, 35 (4), 621-626.
International Reading Association. (n.d.). Focus on Topics in Reading. Retrieved from International Reading Association Web site: http://www.reading.org/resources/issues/focus_rti.html
Lose, M. K. (2007). A child's response to intervention requires a responsive teacher of reading. The Reading Teacher, 61 (3), 276-279.
McCollin, M. (2005, Fall). Increasing reading achievement of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Preventing School Failure, 50 (1), 41-44.
Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 325-335.
Sharif, I., Ozuah, P. O., Dinkevich, E. I., & Mulvihill, M. (2003, Spring). Impact of a brief literacy intervention on urban preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30 (3), 177-180.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Small, S., & Fanuele, D. P. (March/April 2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 (2), 157-169.
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial Fulfillment of the
requirements for EDU 6691
by
Megan Flinn
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Problem Statement
In response to the increased importance of literacy among schools in the United States due to the No Child Left Behind Act, Title I schools have implemented such programs as Reading Recovery and Intervention to improve reading scores on high-stakes tests. Title I funds are stretched across many areas of a school budget in order to increase the likelihood of the school meeting Annual Yearly Progress, or at least gaining progress towards this goal. Little research has been done concerning to the supplemental literacy program that gives the best results, and saves the most money in the long run. To make the most of the government funds dispersed, it would be beneficial for schools categorized under Title I to use the most valuable supplemental literacy program. I will focus solely on the Reading Recovery program and the results it provides to struggling readers, as well the cost of the program for the school.
Purpose of the Study
The major intent of this study is to provide Grandview Elementary school with research that would enable them to utilize the funds provided by Title I to their advantage.
• Does Reading Recovery accomplish the goal of improving literacy among students who are significantly below grade level?
• What are the long range financial benefits, if any, in utilizing Reading Recovery?
• What is the time frame for visualizing student improvement from the use of Reading Recovery, if any?
• What is the time frame for visualizing the financial benefits of Reading Recovery, if any?
Significance of the Study
This study could ultimately contribute to a school system-wide use of a beneficial literacy support program that is both beneficial in student improvement and financial savings for the long run. This study can also be used as a reference for schools under Title I funds with similar characteristics to Grandview Elementary in choosing a supplemental literacy program.
If my hypothesis is incorrect, Grandview Elementary can be confident in their current use of intervention support programs and the current costs. This study will also provide more support for the search of the best educational programs to increase literacy in the United States.
Definition of Terms
Reading Recovery is a supplementary education program that aims to offer the lowest-achieving early elementary school children an effective method of English language reading and writing instruction (Clay, n.d.).
Title I — Improving The Academic Achievement Of The Disadvantaged
SEC. 101. IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE DISADVANTAGED.
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq.) is amended to read as follows:
TITLE I--IMPROVING THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE DISADVANTAGED
SEC. 1001. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE.
The purpose of this title is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards and state academic assessments. This purpose can be accomplished by —
(1) ensuring that high-quality academic assessments, accountability systems, teacher preparation and training, curriculum, and instructional materials are aligned with challenging State academic standards so that students, teachers, parents, and administrators can measure progress against common expectations for student academic achievement;
(2) meeting the educational needs of low-achieving children in our Nation's highest-poverty schools, limited English proficient children, migratory children, children with disabilities, Indian children, neglected or delinquent children, and young children in need of reading assistance;
(3) closing the achievement gap between high- and low-performing children, especially the achievement gaps between minority and nonminority students, and between disadvantaged children and their more advantaged peers;
(4) holding schools, local educational agencies, and States accountable for improving the academic achievement of all students, and identifying and turning around low-performing schools that have failed to provide a high-quality education to their students, while providing alternatives to students in such schools to enable the students to receive a high-quality education;
(5) distributing and targeting resources sufficiently to make a difference to local educational agencies and schools where needs are greatest;
(6) improving and strengthening accountability, teaching, and learning by using State assessment systems designed to ensure that students are meeting challenging State academic achievement and content standards and increasing achievement overall, but especially for the disadvantaged;
(7) providing greater decision-making authority and flexibility to schools and teachers in exchange for greater responsibility for student performance;
(8) providing children an enriched and accelerated educational program, including the use of school-wide programs or additional services that increase the amount and quality of instructional time;
(9) promoting school-wide reform and ensuring the access of children to effective, scientifically based instructional strategies and challenging academic content;
(10) significantly elevating the quality of instruction by providing staff in participating schools with substantial opportunities for professional development;
(11) coordinating services under all parts of this title with each other, with other educational services, and, to the extent feasible, with other agencies providing services to youth, children, and families; and
(12) affording parents substantial and meaningful opportunities to participate in the education of their children (Education, U.D.o., n.d.).
Supplemental Literacy Programs or Reading Intervention is a method of academic intervention used in the United States designed to provide early, effective assistance to children who are having difficulty learning. This was also designed to function as a data-based process of diagnosing learning disabilities. This method can be used at the group and individual level (International Reading Association, n.d.).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study will take place in Dothan, Alabama within Grandview Elementary school. This school contains grades kindergarten through fifth grade, and is classified as 93 percent free and reduced lunch under the 2006-2007 Alabama Department of Education Report Card (Alabama State Board of Education, n.d.).
Grandview Elementary school utilizes teacher assistants and the reading coach as instructors for reading intervention programs. These programs consist of a “double dip”, or re-teaching of the previous lesson in the school’s chosen reading program, as well as extra support in comprehension and fluency work among a group of three to six students at one time for a 20 to 30 minute sessions. Dependent on the student’s second grade classroom teacher’s schedule, does he or she participate in the reading intervention for a set time. Each second grade teacher has a different allotted time for the pull-out intervention, and also each second grade teacher has a varied amount of time for the pull-out intervention. For example, one teacher may choose to have the pull-out intervention time during the first 30 minutes of reading block within the class, but for only 20 minutes, while another teacher may have the pull-out intervention time later in the afternoon during science block within the class for 30 minutes.
Hypothesis
The Reading Recovery supplemental literacy program will be beneficial in significantly increasing the students’ literacy level from the previous level, of well below grade level, as well as being cost effective for Grandview Elementary under the issued Title I funds.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Previous research and academic publications concerning the Reading Recovery program have been reviewed, and overall shed a positive light on the Reading Recovery program as a tool to improve literacy among students at Grandview Elementary school who are significantly below grade level. The major intent of this study is to provide Grandview Elementary school with research that would enable them to utilize the funds provided by Title I to their advantage. In review of the following articles research was located that showed successful results in terms of improving literacy among students tested at below grade level. I also was able to review previous trials of the Reading Recovery program where achievement was reached among at risk students within a diverse population.
Reading Recovery Success
According to Vellutino, Scanlon, Small and Fanuele (2006), children at risk for early reading difficulties were identified on entry into kindergarten, and half of these children received Reading Recovery intervention two to three times a week during their kindergarten year. The other half received whatever remedial assistance was offered by their schools. These children were again assessed at the beginning of first grade, and those who continued to have difficulties in reading received either one-to-one daily Reading Recovery intervention from the beginning to the end of first grade or whatever remedial assistance was offered by their schools over the same time period. All targeted children were periodically assessed through the end of third grade. Results suggest that either kindergarten Reading Recovery intervention alone or kindergarten Reading Recovery intervention combined with first-grade Reading Recovery intervention are both useful tools for preventing early and long-term reading difficulties in most at-risk children (2006, pp. 157-169).
Author Mary K. Lose (2007) discusses the fundamental principles of a successful intervention approach, and describes the Reading Recovery intervention program as a prime example of success. She explains that a child who has been provided with the Reading Recovery intervention will respond successfully, making progress daily and learning how to lift his or her own literacy performance with skilled support from the tools learned through Reading Recovery. Lose’s (2007) article gives many strict guidelines for the intervention to be successful in increasing student achievement including a knowledgeable teacher and opportunities for the highest quality of professional development for these teachers. The author is a firm believer of Reading Recovery intervention because it is an evidence-based early intervening service (2007, pp. 276-279).
Lynn Fuchs (2006) explores the Reading Recovery intervention program through a commentary article. She discusses how Reading Recovery, over the past decade, has emerged as a promising model of service delivery at the elementary grades, with behavior and reading receiving the greatest amount of systematic attention by researchers and practitioners. The authors define the intervention and prevention program by explaining that within the context of a multilayered prevention system, Reading Recovery integrates increasingly intensive instruction and, at each layer, employs assessment to identify students who are inadequately responsive and who therefore require intervention at the next, more intensive layer in the system (2006, pp. 621-626).
Diversity Among At Risk Students
Michelle McCollin (2005) discusses the achievement of at-risk students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in the Reading Recovery intervention program. Through the authors’ research they have found that using a variety of instructional materials at different reading levels can accommodate individual reading acquisition skills. The variety needed to accommodate this strategy can be found in the Reading Recovery intervention program. She also discusses the need for an opportunity to allow students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds to acquire early literacy skills in order to close achievement gaps. Educators can encourage the reading achievement of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds by directly and explicitly attending to research-based components of early literacy, such as provided within Reading Recovery intervention (2005, pp. 41-44).
Sharif, Ozuah, Dinkevich, and Mulvihill (2003) explain the lack of adequate literacy skills among children from socially disadvantaged homes. The authors discussed their belief that high intensity intervention programs such as Reading Recovery have been shown to improve the vocabulary skills and language comprehension of children in previous studies. Their own research studies show that the impact of literacy interventions, such as Reading Recovery has been greater on disadvantaged families. Overall, they concluded that the Reading Recovery intervention at a low-income, urban child-care center was associated with significant improvements in preschool children’s vocabulary skills (2003, pp. 177-180).
Nancollis, Lawrie, and Dodd (2005) discuss a study examining the effect of Reading Recovery intervention that focused on syllable and rhyme awareness on the attainment of literacy and the development of phonological awareness skills two years after intervention. The longitudinal study compared two groups of children from deprived socioeconomic backgrounds in the United Kingdom. One group received a program of Reading Recovery intervention and one did not. The Reading Recovery intervention that was implemented, which focused on enhancing syllable and rhyme awareness, had increased effect on later literacy development (2005, pp. 325-335).
Summary
Previous publications have researched and reported short-term programs of Reading Recovery programs and their successfulness in terms of student achievement and time frame for results. The previously reviewed articles have shown favor for the Reading Recovery program in achieving the goal of improving literacy among students who are significantly below grade level at Grandview Elementary school. The reviews provided insight into an ideal time frame for visible results in student achievement. Overall, I was unable to locate previous research or publications concerning the economics of the Reading Recovery program.
Chapter III
Methodology
In order to test the hypothesis, previously stated, a quantitative quasi experimental study will be conducted. Statistical information will be gathered from the collected data and will be explored to make a comparison of the affect of the Reading Recovery program with past practices for teaching similar students.
The methods used in the study will examine data gathered by literacy pre-tests finished prior to entry into the Reading Recovery program. A post-assessment will also be administered to students once they have completed the Reading Recovery program to view the growth each student has made since the completion of the program. Overall, the researcher will be searching for students who make increased achievements in literacy according to pre and post-test results. Grandview Elementary school has very diverse demographics, but students will share a similar age range – seven to nine years of age. Both boys and girls will be included in the study. Students must have scored below the benchmark score according to the initial Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, or DIBELS
Research Questions
The research questions will be answered through the analysis of the test scores. 1) Do students who are significantly below grade level have higher achievement scores in literacy after completion of Reading Recovery rather than the current intervention strategies implemented at the school? 2) Do student demographics influence literacy achievement scores? 3) Do Grandview’s school demographics influence literacy achievement scores?
Population
The study will be conducted with all second graders and those that have scored below the benchmark score on the DIBELS assessment given in the beginning of the school year. The students scoring at a low level will be the school’s primary candidates for a reading intervention program. The sample size of students in the program will be 33 students. The purpose for the reading intervention program currently provided at Grandview Elementary is to attempt to bring struggling readers up to grade level or significantly increase the literacy level. Reading Recovery versus the presently used intervention programs.
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be used in the study to test the effectiveness of Reading Recovery among second graders at Grandview Elementary will be a t-test. This will compare the mean scores of children that have taken the DIBELS assessment in the past before the intervention program with those that are taking the invention program now. The mean scores of the children’s DIBELs assessment will be used in the comparison.
Data Collection
Data including student age, race, gender, school budget, a literacy pre-test valid for the second grade level, past DIBELS scores, and current assessment scores will be collected before implementation of the Reading Recovery program.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
The parents of the students who qualify for the program must complete a parental consent form in order to participate in the study. The consent form will specify the procedure and guidelines of the research study, and it will include the risk parameters for participating. Grandview Elementary is required also to give its permission for the researcher to take involvement in its school programs and investigate the current programs taking place.
Parents of the students participating in the study must be fully aware of all parameters of the study in order to allow them to make a knowledgeable decision concerning their child’s participation in the study. Parents will also be aware of how they may withdraw their student from the study at any time that they feel necessary. The study will not include deception. In finalizing the study, parents will receive a debriefing by the researcher. At this time, parents will be given the opportunity to ask specific questions and inquire about the study’s outcomes.
Data Analysis
This quantitative study will use the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, also known as S.P.S.S. which is a software program the researcher will use to help analyze and compare the test scores of the students involved in the study. The researcher will enter the statistical data collected. The scores will be placed in columns that are appropriately labeled. Once information is correctly entered into the program, the researcher will have the ability to maneuver and shift the data in many ways to achieve varying results. S.P.S.S. will allow the researcher to reduce bias that may exist. As the researcher investigates the data, he or she will help Grandview to determine an efficient intervention program both academically and financially. Demographic data will be analyzed and compared to DIEBELS scores to determine if there is a relationship between descriptive data and scores. A t-test will be used to determine if there is significant differences in the scores of second grade students in the past with the present second graders after the Reading Recovery program has been instituted.
References
Alabama State Board of Education. (n.d.). Grandview elementary school. Report Card 2006-2007.
Clay, M. (n.d.). Reading Recovery. Retrieved from Reading Recovery Council of North America Web site: http://www.readingrecovery.org/
Education, U. D. o. (n.d.). Title I: Improving the academic achievement of the disadvantaged. Retrieved from ED.gov Web site: http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/pg1.html
Fuchs, L. S. (2006). A framework for building capacity for responsiveness to intervention. School Psychology Review, 35 (4), 621-626.
International Reading Association. (n.d.). Focus on Topics in Reading. Retrieved from International Reading Association Web site: http://www.reading.org/resources/issues/focus_rti.html
Lose, M. K. (2007). A child's response to intervention requires a responsive teacher of reading. The Reading Teacher, 61 (3), 276-279.
McCollin, M. (2005, Fall). Increasing reading achievement of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Preventing School Failure, 50 (1), 41-44.
Nancollis, A., Lawrie, B., & Dodd, B. (2005). Phonological awareness intervention and the acquisition of literacy skills in children from deprived social backgrounds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 325-335.
Sharif, I., Ozuah, P. O., Dinkevich, E. I., & Mulvihill, M. (2003, Spring). Impact of a brief literacy intervention on urban preschoolers. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30 (3), 177-180.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Small, S., & Fanuele, D. P. (March/April 2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 (2), 157-169.
The Effects of Preschool
g Head: THE EFFECTS OF PRESCHOOL
The Effects of Preschool
On Reading and Math Test Scores
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial Fulfillment of the requirements
for EDU 6691
By
Kari Beth Price
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
President George W. Bush and the National Governor’s Association established eight national goals, which were designed to have been met in this decade. One of the eight goals was that children would be ready to learn when they start school (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). This puts a great deal of emphasis on preschool education and the importance of it. Children can participate in a variety of preschools and settings – public preschool, the Head Start Program, private preschools and Montessori preschools. Each setting has a different atmosphere and may have a different approach to learning. But which one is correct and most beneficial to children entering a full-day school setting? That is what we will be exploring throughout this study.
Since 1970 the percentage of children attending a preschool has increased from 20% to 44% in 1990 (Abouzeid & Rosemery, 1994). 500,000 four year olds were enrolled in the Head Start Program in 2006 (Early, Maxwell, Burchinal, Bender, Ebanks, Henry, Iriondo-Perez, Mashburn, Pianta, Alva, Bryant, Cai, Clifford, Griffin, Howes, Jeon, Peisner-Feinburg, Vandergrift, Zill, 2007). More and more of the U.S. population are involving their children in a pre-kindergarten establishment. More women are involving themselves in the workforce, partly due to the increase of the divorce rate and the single-family homes. Therefore, their young children need a place to go when their parents are working (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). Enrolling children in a preschool program or daycare is a wonderful solution. Decades ago, women stayed at home to care for their children, and educated them there (Abouzeid & Rosemery, 1994). With the growing trends across our nation, it has become more acceptable to send young children to preschool and daycare the majority of the day.
The important aspect in choosing an appropriate preschool for your children is to considering choosing one that is highly qualified. Preschools can be extremely important in all aspects of children’s development – social, emotional, cognitive, physical, literacy and language.
High quality experiences provided by highly qualified preschools can increase the development opportunities and social and mental competencies. In these sorts of preschools, the foundations are laid for a successful future for children. Children involved in these types of programs are introduced to early literacy experiences that are given by knowledgeable and well-trained teachers. Types of literacy activities ideal for preschool settings include discussions about books, retelling of stories or key events, writing and listening (Morrow, 2004).
All children should be introduced to pre-kindergarten schooling. It can be beneficial to all children in all socio-economic levels and backgrounds. Preschool appears to benefit children who have poor economic background and no parental involvement the most (Morrow, 2004). Certain programs such as Head Start, Follow Through, Title I, and other public school programs are geared towards reaching this population of people.
High-risk students that were involved in pre-kindergarten were less likely to be placed in a special education classroom once they entered the elementary school setting (Lee, Brooks-Gunn, Shnur & Liaw, 1994). Studies also found that there was a lesser need to retain those children that attended preschool, less juvenile delinquency, less teen pregnancy, a lesser need for welfare and unemployment rates where lower when compared to those students who did not attend a pre-kindergarten. A negative aspect that has continued to occur and reoccur amongst statistics about preschool is that academic advantages tend to fade by the time those particular children reach third grade (Seawell & Ross, 1992).
One study completed in Great Britain examined three different sets of students for four years – those children who attended a preschool, those that attended a daycare and those children who did not attend preschool at all. The researchers looked at the test scores of these children and discovered that the children that did not attend any preschool had significantly less test scores. Children that attended preschool also had a higher self-esteem or outlooks about themselves as well as an understanding for basic skills (math and reading). Allowing your child to become involved in a preschool outside of the home setting has a lasting effect on school achievement (Brenber & Davies, 1997).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to determine if attending preschool is beneficial to a child’s reading and math abilities, shown through test scores as compared to those children who did not attend preschool before beginning elementary school.
Significance of the Study
Based on the new standards adapted by President George W. Bush, children must be ready to attend school at an appropriate age. Enrolling children in preschool is the best way to prepare young children for their first year in elementary school. The President worked with the states to develop early intervention strategies that would prepare young children for school. (Shipley & Oborn, 1996) He wanted children to know their letters, numbers and have a strong vocabulary upon entering school (Duncan, Claessens, Huston, Pagani, Enge, Sexton, Dowsett, Magnuson, Klebanov, Feinstein, Brooks-Gunn, Duckworth, Japel, 2007). It was agreed that all children should have access to some sort of program that allowed for success in school as well as parental involvement. Public organizations that offer these types of programs include Head Start, Title I, etc. The goal was that at least one year of preschool would be offered to underprivileged children (Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Trends in education have emerged as well. Children are expected to perform on the first grade level when they are entering kindergarten. Strict principles that influence standardized test scores have pushed teachers to run a classroom where they have to move quickly through the curriculum in a short period of time. Children are being asked to perform on the grade level higher that what was expected decades ago. The love of learning has disappeared in some classrooms. Therefore, pre-kindergarten is a good place for children to understand and develop a love for learning, especially in math. A high-quality math program will teach pre-kindergarteners the basics of mathematics, while allowing them to explore and develop confidence through inquiries of the subject (Perry, 1999).
Research has found that more and more four-year-old children are involved in preschools that deal specifically with the preparing that age group of children for school. Within the data researched, studies found that high-quality preschools provided the better foundations for school readiness and success (Early et al, 2007). Parental involvement within in the school increases the students’ interest as well. Children will see their parents interested in what they are achieving and parents can learn how to help their children become better students (Perry, 1999).
Parents and guardians are interested in knowing if these programs are successful and provide the services that they say they will. A variety of studies have been performed throughout the years questioning the effectiveness of preschool programs. Some studies have shown that advantaged children that attended preschool outperformed those children who went to daycare or did not attend preschool at all. Yet another study found that children that had two or more years of daycare had better math scores than those children who did not (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). In addition to that information, another recent study found that an early concept of math (numbers and the order that they go in) was a predictor for success in math in the later years. Math is also proven to be a dominant predictor for reading success (Duncan et al, 2007). Learning which school provides that best preschool education, a high-quality education, for your child is important for any parent to know.
Definition of Terms
Head Start Program: The Head Start Program began in 1964 in the Johnson administration as a part of the war on poverty. The program was designed to involve parents in the centers, as well as provide medical and dental treatment, school readiness, psychological development and education for parents (Lee et al, 1990, Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Public preschools: Public preschools used the results of high stakes testing and developed an early childhood education program. These were designed to be centrally located and provide free services to the community with a qualified staff (Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Private preschool: These programs range from a variety of structures and curriculums and all promise different things. These programs are not state mandated or accredited (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). Examples of private preschools may include church preschool programs, preschools associated with businesses, and Montessori schools.
High-quality preschools: High-quality preschools foster literacy and language skills that are necessary for a child’s development and future. These types of preschools emphasize story telling, dramatic play, retelling of stories and reading (Morrow, 2004).
Preschool readiness: Preschool readiness is preparing children to enter an elementary school setting, which can be obtained through the attendance of a pre-kindergarten school.
Limitations and Delimitations:
The proposed study will use a quantitative methodology to investigate the effects of public and private preschool on reading and math scores. The types of preschools researched will be found in the Southeastern part of the United States.
Hypothesis
Children that attend a private preschool, such as a church preschool or Montessori school are more likely to have high test scores in reading and math.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
In the past several years attention has been drawn to the “No Child Left Behind” Act and the bills surrounding this act of Congress. In 2002, President George W. Bush formulated the bill, which claims that each child should know their letters and numbers by the time they reach school age (kindergarten) (Duncan et al, 2007). Teachers are now being forced into the spotlight and they are feeling the pressure of the success rate of the students in their class. This in return puts a great deal of pressure on the preschool teachers, because now what was expected in kindergarten and first grade now has to be taught in preschool (Perry, 1999). Bush also stated that the nation should have to help children reach this point (Duncan et al, 2007). Therefore, the citizens of America are called to help make a difference in children’s lives across the country. There are many ideas and viewpoints about the most appropriate way to teach children and what is pertinent for children to know before entering kindergarten or first grade. Some may think that enrolling their child in a public preschool program such as Head Start may be the correct way to prepare students for school. Others may think that enrolling children in private preschools such as church-based schools or Montessori schools are the answers to the questions. There is a plethora of literature surrounding these topics and much more about school readiness and preschool curriculums.
Importance of Preschool
The number of children that now participate in preschool on a yearly basis has risen since 1970. Studies and literature have shown that that strong links occur in early literary experiences and learning to read, as well as links between alphabet knowledge and learning to read. Society is now depending on the fact that children learn their ABC’s in preschool, so that students can focus on more advanced skills in kindergarten – learning to read more difficult books and focusing of phonemic awareness at a greater extent (Abouzeid & Rosemery,1994).
The most important years to teach children the basis for social, emotional, physical, cognitive, language and literacy development are when they are in the three to four-year-old age bracket. Studies have shown that preschool is beneficial to all children in all economic groups. Those children who come from a home where there is no educational background for the parents and are in the lowest economic group show the most benefits when children are involved in preschool (Morrow, 2004).
Children that do participate in prekindergarten intervention programs are less likely to be in special education, be retained, be unemployed in later years, or be victims of teen pregnancy or juvenile delinquency. Another positive effect found through research is that most children who attend a prekindergarten program are noted to have good behavior in later years (Seawell & Ross, 1992).
According to Early et al (2007), children participating in a high quality preschool experience are laying the foundation for greater success in school in the later years. The goal of these preschools is to change the child’s development through an educational experience. This can be done through a high-quality preschool setting and curriculum. Research has shown that high quality preschool experiences do have an effect on brain development. Children that are at-risk seem to show the greatest development improvements through these types of experiences.
There is not much information that states that children attending preschool is “bad”. Most information shows overall positive development in children. The downfall is that it is not a state requirement that children attend preschool or some sort of education before beginning kindergarten. In fact, in the state of Alabama, children do not have to start attending school until the age of seven. As stated earlier, teachers are feeling the pressure to teach children at a younger age their ABC’s, numbers and important vocabulary. Therefore, teachers have to move quicker to get everything accomplished in a short amount of time. This will leave less time for developmentally appropriate activities and games and stimulate the brain and encourage learning at different levels (Perry, 1999).
Public and Private Preschool
Children can become involved in a preschool in a variety of forms and preschool is attainable for all socioeconomic levels and financial abilities. The government has provided the nation with several publically funded options for pre-kindergarten. These may include Head Start or Title I programs. If parents choose to involve their children in preschool through another form, students can be enrolled in private preschools. Some examples of these types of preschools may include church-based programs, schools associated with businesses or Montessori schools. These programs can also be found in every state across the United States. Each program has pros and cons, but it is up to the parent to decide what is appropriate for his or her child.
The four-year-old in today’s society comes from varying family foundations. It is assumed that the average four-year-old has been exposed to some daycare or preschool. Most children have experienced divorce, split households, inconsistency at home, and changing values. Therefore, much of the responsibility of leading and guiding some children falls into the hands of teachers. It is ideal that a firm support base be provided for the child through home, school environments and activities. This in return will nurture the development of the four-year-old and help them develop his or her self-concept (Position Statement from the Southern Association on Children Under Six 1986).
Head Start began in 1960 and has been growing continually each year. This is a publically funded school organization that is centrally located in the community and is designed to reach underprivileged and low socioeconomic level families and children. Lee and Loeb (1994) stated that Head Start seems to reach “the poorest of the poor.” Overall, the Head Start program seems to have a diminishing effect on its participants. By the time the student reaches third or fourth grade, the student does not seem to be achieving or performing any better than a child who did not participate in the Head Start program. This statement seems to be especially true for those students who do not receive any sort of follow up intervention. Several complaints Lee and Loeb (1994) stated in their article was that there seemed to be great variation in quality of the program, a lack of follow through by the program itself and the administrators, and the program provided students with a weak educational environment.
Early et al (2007) also made some statements about the Head Start program that has been implemented over the past few decades. Because it is federally funded, there is a great deal of controversy over the teachers’ salaries. This in return leads to debate of whether teacher qualifications are high enough or too high. With publically funded schools, we are not seeing equal footing among all of the states; the education guidelines can vary from state to state.
Montessori schools began in 1907 from an idea that was formulated by Maria Montessori. Presently there are 4,000 Montessori schools in the United States that are privately funded. The curriculum and basis of the Montessori school is that children have “sensitive periods” which are different for each child. This is the idea that children learn certain ideas at certain ages. Therefore, children are allowed to choose which activities they would like to participate in during the school day, in hopes that their sensitive period would lead them in the appropriate direction. Children use a great deal of manipulatives, instead of worksheets, tests and paperwork. This is different from what is being seen in public schools across America (Lopata, Wallace, & Finn, 2005).
Several studies have been conducted through the years about the effectiveness of Montessori schools. Some studies show that these schools are more effective; other studies show that there is no major difference between these types of classrooms and traditional classrooms. One study conducted in 1987 tested Montessori students on their standardized test scores, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills and the Metropolitan Achievement Test, and those scores were compared to traditional classroom students’ scores. The results found that Montessori scores were significantly higher than those students in a conventional classroom setting.
Research and literature states that there are several important factors also for teachers who are working with this age group. For instance, according to Morrow (2004) preschool aged children need to have parents that are involved in their school environment and with what comes home each night as practice for the children. An example may be that a four-year-old preschooler may need some extra practice after hours with his or her sight words. Parental involvement would be necessary at this point, because the child may need help making flash cards or going over the flashcards with an adult. Out of school experiences are necessary for children at this age. Equally important would be that the preschoolers’ parents know and understand the routines and activities that the children participate in at school. The parents may want to incorporate some of the same routines at home. This may help the child familiarize themselves with processes at school and help them adjust better to the school setting. Parental involvement may be something that is lacking with the public preschool setting.
Morrow (2004) also points out another interesting fact that is important for preschools across America. The fact is preschools should have the community’s involvement as well. Through the community’s effort and involvement, there can be a push to establish quality preschools, to fund research strategies or topics and to provide necessary resources. Public schools may be more apt to receive community assistance; because they are publically funded where as private preschools are not.
What is important for parents and teachers who are interested in their child’s well
being and education to understand is that children need to be involved in a high quality
preschool programs. Their children need an education that focuses on organized and skillful play is developmentally appropriate, and focuses on literacy and language development (Position Statement from the Southern Association on Children Under Six 1986).
According to Duncan et al (2007) Teachers are encouraged to have an exploratory classroom where young children can investigate subjects and skills instead of a “drill-based” program. The main focus of any preschool classroom and environment should be language and math concepts. If children develop these skills at a young age, they will succeed in later years.
Chapter III
Methodology
To explore the hypothesis, which was stated earlier, the researchers will use an analysis of the data where the specific methodologies will be explored. A quantitative study of the data will be implemented to investigate any statistical information.
Methods used by the study will investigate information gathered from test scores that will be completed by the students when they complete their four-year-old preschool year before entering kindergarten. A test will also be given to students when they complete their first year in kindergarten to see the progress the students have made since the completion of preschool. Ultimately, the researcher will analyze data to see which students excel in the reading and math subject areas, those students who have completed private preschool or those who completed public preschool. The school will both have similar demographics as well as the same age group of students – 4-year-old children. Boys and girls will both be part of the study. Therefore, students have to complete one year of private or public preschool to be eligible for the study.
Research Questions
The research questions will be answered through the analysis of the test scores. 1) Does the completion of public or private preschool increase students’ success in reading content area when they are in kindergarten? 2) Does the completion of public or private preschool increase students’ success in mathematics in kindergarten? 3) Are children who attend public or private preschool overall more prepared for the kindergarten program?
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be used in the study to test the effects of preschool in success in kindergarten will be a paired samples t-test. This will compare the means of two variables. The children that complete private preschool, their reading scores will be compared to those scores of children who attend public preschool.
Data Collection
The data collection process will entail the researcher administering a reading and math test to the students after they have completed preschool. Then a test will be given to the same students after the completion of kindergarten. The researcher will be able to see the progress of the students over the year and also compare the test scores between reading and math scores in the two different years the child attended.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
To participate in the study, the parents of the chosen students must complete a parental consent form. Part of the consent form will detail the guidelines of the research project as well as providing the risk parameters. The schools must also give their consent of the researchers to take a part in their school and look at their programs that they have implemented in their school setting.
It is important for the parents of the preschool children to be informed of parameters of the study, so that parents can make an informed decision about their children’s participation in the test. The consent form will also explain how parents may withdraw their child from the study at any time if they feel uncomfortable with the research. There is no need of deception to be used within the study. At the conclusion of the study, a debriefing will be given to the parents by the researcher. During this time, parents will be given a specific time to ask questions and receive feedback concerning the success of the research.
Data Analysis
The study will use a software program to help analyze the test scores of the participants. The program that will be used is called SPSS, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Through using this particular data analysis software, the researchers will be able to compare two sets of data with each other.
The researcher enters the statistical information into the program and the scores are placed in appropriate columns. By using this program, the researcher is trying to eliminate any bias.
Through the gathering and exploring of the data, researcher will determine whether children who attend public preschool or private preschool have a greater success in kindergarten reading and math scores.
Population
The researcher will gather test scores from all over the state of Alabama. There will be an equal number of private schools and public schools. The researcher would like to gather information from several different varieties of private school for the comparison of data. There will be an equal number of boys and girls that participate in the study. There will be an equal number of races and socioeconomic levels that are participants in the study. The researcher is trying to make the numbers surrounding the study and its participants as equal as possible.
References
Abouzeid, M. & Rosemery, C. (1994). Knowledge preschool – age children bring to literacy
tasks: the importance of “not holding back.” A Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference, 1-17.
Brember, I. & Davies, J. (1997). The effects of pre-school experience on reading attainment: a
four year cross-sectional study. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of
Experimental Educational Psychology, 17.3, 255-66.
Duncan, G., Claessens, A., Huston, A., Pagani, L., Engel, M., Sexton, H., Dowsett, C.,
Magnunson, K., Klebanov, P., Feinstein, L., Brooks-Gunn, J., Duckworth, K., Japel C. (2007) School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428-1446.
Early, D., Maxwell, K., Burchinal, M., Bender, R., Ebanks, C., Henry, G., Iriondo-Perez, J.,
Mashburn, A., Pianta, R., Alva, S., Bryant, D., Cai, K., Clifford, R., Griffin, J., Howes,
C., Jeon, H., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Vandergrift, N., Zill, N. (2007) Teachers’ education, classroom quality, and young children’s academic skills: results from seven studies of preschool programs. Child Development, 78, 558-580.
Lee, V., Brooks-Gunn, J., Schnur, E., Liaw, F. (1990) Are Head Start effects sustained? a
longitudinal follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs. Child Development, 61, 495-507.
Lee, V. & Loeb, S. (1994). Where do Head Start attendees end up? one reason why preschool
effects fade out. American Educational Research Association, 1-40.
Lopata, C., Wallace, N., Finn, K. (2005) Comparison of academic achievement between
montessori and traditional education programs. Journal of Research in Childhood
Education, 20:1, 5- 13.
Morrow, L. (2004). Literacy development in the preschool years: a position statement of the
international reading association. The International Reading Association.
Perry, D. (1999) A study to determine the effects of pre-kindergarten on kindergarten readiness
and achievement in mathematics. Salem-Teikyo University, 1-57.
Seawell, J. & Ross, G. (1992). Relationships between a prekindergarten intervention program
and school success. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, 1- 46.
Shipley, G. & Oborn, C. (1996). A review of four preschool programs: a preschool model that
works. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, 1-32.
Southern Association on Children Under Six (1986). Position statement from the southern
association on children under six. Little Rock, Arkansas, 1-5.
The Effects of Preschool
On Reading and Math Test Scores
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial Fulfillment of the requirements
for EDU 6691
By
Kari Beth Price
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
President George W. Bush and the National Governor’s Association established eight national goals, which were designed to have been met in this decade. One of the eight goals was that children would be ready to learn when they start school (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). This puts a great deal of emphasis on preschool education and the importance of it. Children can participate in a variety of preschools and settings – public preschool, the Head Start Program, private preschools and Montessori preschools. Each setting has a different atmosphere and may have a different approach to learning. But which one is correct and most beneficial to children entering a full-day school setting? That is what we will be exploring throughout this study.
Since 1970 the percentage of children attending a preschool has increased from 20% to 44% in 1990 (Abouzeid & Rosemery, 1994). 500,000 four year olds were enrolled in the Head Start Program in 2006 (Early, Maxwell, Burchinal, Bender, Ebanks, Henry, Iriondo-Perez, Mashburn, Pianta, Alva, Bryant, Cai, Clifford, Griffin, Howes, Jeon, Peisner-Feinburg, Vandergrift, Zill, 2007). More and more of the U.S. population are involving their children in a pre-kindergarten establishment. More women are involving themselves in the workforce, partly due to the increase of the divorce rate and the single-family homes. Therefore, their young children need a place to go when their parents are working (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). Enrolling children in a preschool program or daycare is a wonderful solution. Decades ago, women stayed at home to care for their children, and educated them there (Abouzeid & Rosemery, 1994). With the growing trends across our nation, it has become more acceptable to send young children to preschool and daycare the majority of the day.
The important aspect in choosing an appropriate preschool for your children is to considering choosing one that is highly qualified. Preschools can be extremely important in all aspects of children’s development – social, emotional, cognitive, physical, literacy and language.
High quality experiences provided by highly qualified preschools can increase the development opportunities and social and mental competencies. In these sorts of preschools, the foundations are laid for a successful future for children. Children involved in these types of programs are introduced to early literacy experiences that are given by knowledgeable and well-trained teachers. Types of literacy activities ideal for preschool settings include discussions about books, retelling of stories or key events, writing and listening (Morrow, 2004).
All children should be introduced to pre-kindergarten schooling. It can be beneficial to all children in all socio-economic levels and backgrounds. Preschool appears to benefit children who have poor economic background and no parental involvement the most (Morrow, 2004). Certain programs such as Head Start, Follow Through, Title I, and other public school programs are geared towards reaching this population of people.
High-risk students that were involved in pre-kindergarten were less likely to be placed in a special education classroom once they entered the elementary school setting (Lee, Brooks-Gunn, Shnur & Liaw, 1994). Studies also found that there was a lesser need to retain those children that attended preschool, less juvenile delinquency, less teen pregnancy, a lesser need for welfare and unemployment rates where lower when compared to those students who did not attend a pre-kindergarten. A negative aspect that has continued to occur and reoccur amongst statistics about preschool is that academic advantages tend to fade by the time those particular children reach third grade (Seawell & Ross, 1992).
One study completed in Great Britain examined three different sets of students for four years – those children who attended a preschool, those that attended a daycare and those children who did not attend preschool at all. The researchers looked at the test scores of these children and discovered that the children that did not attend any preschool had significantly less test scores. Children that attended preschool also had a higher self-esteem or outlooks about themselves as well as an understanding for basic skills (math and reading). Allowing your child to become involved in a preschool outside of the home setting has a lasting effect on school achievement (Brenber & Davies, 1997).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to determine if attending preschool is beneficial to a child’s reading and math abilities, shown through test scores as compared to those children who did not attend preschool before beginning elementary school.
Significance of the Study
Based on the new standards adapted by President George W. Bush, children must be ready to attend school at an appropriate age. Enrolling children in preschool is the best way to prepare young children for their first year in elementary school. The President worked with the states to develop early intervention strategies that would prepare young children for school. (Shipley & Oborn, 1996) He wanted children to know their letters, numbers and have a strong vocabulary upon entering school (Duncan, Claessens, Huston, Pagani, Enge, Sexton, Dowsett, Magnuson, Klebanov, Feinstein, Brooks-Gunn, Duckworth, Japel, 2007). It was agreed that all children should have access to some sort of program that allowed for success in school as well as parental involvement. Public organizations that offer these types of programs include Head Start, Title I, etc. The goal was that at least one year of preschool would be offered to underprivileged children (Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Trends in education have emerged as well. Children are expected to perform on the first grade level when they are entering kindergarten. Strict principles that influence standardized test scores have pushed teachers to run a classroom where they have to move quickly through the curriculum in a short period of time. Children are being asked to perform on the grade level higher that what was expected decades ago. The love of learning has disappeared in some classrooms. Therefore, pre-kindergarten is a good place for children to understand and develop a love for learning, especially in math. A high-quality math program will teach pre-kindergarteners the basics of mathematics, while allowing them to explore and develop confidence through inquiries of the subject (Perry, 1999).
Research has found that more and more four-year-old children are involved in preschools that deal specifically with the preparing that age group of children for school. Within the data researched, studies found that high-quality preschools provided the better foundations for school readiness and success (Early et al, 2007). Parental involvement within in the school increases the students’ interest as well. Children will see their parents interested in what they are achieving and parents can learn how to help their children become better students (Perry, 1999).
Parents and guardians are interested in knowing if these programs are successful and provide the services that they say they will. A variety of studies have been performed throughout the years questioning the effectiveness of preschool programs. Some studies have shown that advantaged children that attended preschool outperformed those children who went to daycare or did not attend preschool at all. Yet another study found that children that had two or more years of daycare had better math scores than those children who did not (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). In addition to that information, another recent study found that an early concept of math (numbers and the order that they go in) was a predictor for success in math in the later years. Math is also proven to be a dominant predictor for reading success (Duncan et al, 2007). Learning which school provides that best preschool education, a high-quality education, for your child is important for any parent to know.
Definition of Terms
Head Start Program: The Head Start Program began in 1964 in the Johnson administration as a part of the war on poverty. The program was designed to involve parents in the centers, as well as provide medical and dental treatment, school readiness, psychological development and education for parents (Lee et al, 1990, Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Public preschools: Public preschools used the results of high stakes testing and developed an early childhood education program. These were designed to be centrally located and provide free services to the community with a qualified staff (Shipley & Oborn, 1996).
Private preschool: These programs range from a variety of structures and curriculums and all promise different things. These programs are not state mandated or accredited (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). Examples of private preschools may include church preschool programs, preschools associated with businesses, and Montessori schools.
High-quality preschools: High-quality preschools foster literacy and language skills that are necessary for a child’s development and future. These types of preschools emphasize story telling, dramatic play, retelling of stories and reading (Morrow, 2004).
Preschool readiness: Preschool readiness is preparing children to enter an elementary school setting, which can be obtained through the attendance of a pre-kindergarten school.
Limitations and Delimitations:
The proposed study will use a quantitative methodology to investigate the effects of public and private preschool on reading and math scores. The types of preschools researched will be found in the Southeastern part of the United States.
Hypothesis
Children that attend a private preschool, such as a church preschool or Montessori school are more likely to have high test scores in reading and math.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
In the past several years attention has been drawn to the “No Child Left Behind” Act and the bills surrounding this act of Congress. In 2002, President George W. Bush formulated the bill, which claims that each child should know their letters and numbers by the time they reach school age (kindergarten) (Duncan et al, 2007). Teachers are now being forced into the spotlight and they are feeling the pressure of the success rate of the students in their class. This in return puts a great deal of pressure on the preschool teachers, because now what was expected in kindergarten and first grade now has to be taught in preschool (Perry, 1999). Bush also stated that the nation should have to help children reach this point (Duncan et al, 2007). Therefore, the citizens of America are called to help make a difference in children’s lives across the country. There are many ideas and viewpoints about the most appropriate way to teach children and what is pertinent for children to know before entering kindergarten or first grade. Some may think that enrolling their child in a public preschool program such as Head Start may be the correct way to prepare students for school. Others may think that enrolling children in private preschools such as church-based schools or Montessori schools are the answers to the questions. There is a plethora of literature surrounding these topics and much more about school readiness and preschool curriculums.
Importance of Preschool
The number of children that now participate in preschool on a yearly basis has risen since 1970. Studies and literature have shown that that strong links occur in early literary experiences and learning to read, as well as links between alphabet knowledge and learning to read. Society is now depending on the fact that children learn their ABC’s in preschool, so that students can focus on more advanced skills in kindergarten – learning to read more difficult books and focusing of phonemic awareness at a greater extent (Abouzeid & Rosemery,1994).
The most important years to teach children the basis for social, emotional, physical, cognitive, language and literacy development are when they are in the three to four-year-old age bracket. Studies have shown that preschool is beneficial to all children in all economic groups. Those children who come from a home where there is no educational background for the parents and are in the lowest economic group show the most benefits when children are involved in preschool (Morrow, 2004).
Children that do participate in prekindergarten intervention programs are less likely to be in special education, be retained, be unemployed in later years, or be victims of teen pregnancy or juvenile delinquency. Another positive effect found through research is that most children who attend a prekindergarten program are noted to have good behavior in later years (Seawell & Ross, 1992).
According to Early et al (2007), children participating in a high quality preschool experience are laying the foundation for greater success in school in the later years. The goal of these preschools is to change the child’s development through an educational experience. This can be done through a high-quality preschool setting and curriculum. Research has shown that high quality preschool experiences do have an effect on brain development. Children that are at-risk seem to show the greatest development improvements through these types of experiences.
There is not much information that states that children attending preschool is “bad”. Most information shows overall positive development in children. The downfall is that it is not a state requirement that children attend preschool or some sort of education before beginning kindergarten. In fact, in the state of Alabama, children do not have to start attending school until the age of seven. As stated earlier, teachers are feeling the pressure to teach children at a younger age their ABC’s, numbers and important vocabulary. Therefore, teachers have to move quicker to get everything accomplished in a short amount of time. This will leave less time for developmentally appropriate activities and games and stimulate the brain and encourage learning at different levels (Perry, 1999).
Public and Private Preschool
Children can become involved in a preschool in a variety of forms and preschool is attainable for all socioeconomic levels and financial abilities. The government has provided the nation with several publically funded options for pre-kindergarten. These may include Head Start or Title I programs. If parents choose to involve their children in preschool through another form, students can be enrolled in private preschools. Some examples of these types of preschools may include church-based programs, schools associated with businesses or Montessori schools. These programs can also be found in every state across the United States. Each program has pros and cons, but it is up to the parent to decide what is appropriate for his or her child.
The four-year-old in today’s society comes from varying family foundations. It is assumed that the average four-year-old has been exposed to some daycare or preschool. Most children have experienced divorce, split households, inconsistency at home, and changing values. Therefore, much of the responsibility of leading and guiding some children falls into the hands of teachers. It is ideal that a firm support base be provided for the child through home, school environments and activities. This in return will nurture the development of the four-year-old and help them develop his or her self-concept (Position Statement from the Southern Association on Children Under Six 1986).
Head Start began in 1960 and has been growing continually each year. This is a publically funded school organization that is centrally located in the community and is designed to reach underprivileged and low socioeconomic level families and children. Lee and Loeb (1994) stated that Head Start seems to reach “the poorest of the poor.” Overall, the Head Start program seems to have a diminishing effect on its participants. By the time the student reaches third or fourth grade, the student does not seem to be achieving or performing any better than a child who did not participate in the Head Start program. This statement seems to be especially true for those students who do not receive any sort of follow up intervention. Several complaints Lee and Loeb (1994) stated in their article was that there seemed to be great variation in quality of the program, a lack of follow through by the program itself and the administrators, and the program provided students with a weak educational environment.
Early et al (2007) also made some statements about the Head Start program that has been implemented over the past few decades. Because it is federally funded, there is a great deal of controversy over the teachers’ salaries. This in return leads to debate of whether teacher qualifications are high enough or too high. With publically funded schools, we are not seeing equal footing among all of the states; the education guidelines can vary from state to state.
Montessori schools began in 1907 from an idea that was formulated by Maria Montessori. Presently there are 4,000 Montessori schools in the United States that are privately funded. The curriculum and basis of the Montessori school is that children have “sensitive periods” which are different for each child. This is the idea that children learn certain ideas at certain ages. Therefore, children are allowed to choose which activities they would like to participate in during the school day, in hopes that their sensitive period would lead them in the appropriate direction. Children use a great deal of manipulatives, instead of worksheets, tests and paperwork. This is different from what is being seen in public schools across America (Lopata, Wallace, & Finn, 2005).
Several studies have been conducted through the years about the effectiveness of Montessori schools. Some studies show that these schools are more effective; other studies show that there is no major difference between these types of classrooms and traditional classrooms. One study conducted in 1987 tested Montessori students on their standardized test scores, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills and the Metropolitan Achievement Test, and those scores were compared to traditional classroom students’ scores. The results found that Montessori scores were significantly higher than those students in a conventional classroom setting.
Research and literature states that there are several important factors also for teachers who are working with this age group. For instance, according to Morrow (2004) preschool aged children need to have parents that are involved in their school environment and with what comes home each night as practice for the children. An example may be that a four-year-old preschooler may need some extra practice after hours with his or her sight words. Parental involvement would be necessary at this point, because the child may need help making flash cards or going over the flashcards with an adult. Out of school experiences are necessary for children at this age. Equally important would be that the preschoolers’ parents know and understand the routines and activities that the children participate in at school. The parents may want to incorporate some of the same routines at home. This may help the child familiarize themselves with processes at school and help them adjust better to the school setting. Parental involvement may be something that is lacking with the public preschool setting.
Morrow (2004) also points out another interesting fact that is important for preschools across America. The fact is preschools should have the community’s involvement as well. Through the community’s effort and involvement, there can be a push to establish quality preschools, to fund research strategies or topics and to provide necessary resources. Public schools may be more apt to receive community assistance; because they are publically funded where as private preschools are not.
What is important for parents and teachers who are interested in their child’s well
being and education to understand is that children need to be involved in a high quality
preschool programs. Their children need an education that focuses on organized and skillful play is developmentally appropriate, and focuses on literacy and language development (Position Statement from the Southern Association on Children Under Six 1986).
According to Duncan et al (2007) Teachers are encouraged to have an exploratory classroom where young children can investigate subjects and skills instead of a “drill-based” program. The main focus of any preschool classroom and environment should be language and math concepts. If children develop these skills at a young age, they will succeed in later years.
Chapter III
Methodology
To explore the hypothesis, which was stated earlier, the researchers will use an analysis of the data where the specific methodologies will be explored. A quantitative study of the data will be implemented to investigate any statistical information.
Methods used by the study will investigate information gathered from test scores that will be completed by the students when they complete their four-year-old preschool year before entering kindergarten. A test will also be given to students when they complete their first year in kindergarten to see the progress the students have made since the completion of preschool. Ultimately, the researcher will analyze data to see which students excel in the reading and math subject areas, those students who have completed private preschool or those who completed public preschool. The school will both have similar demographics as well as the same age group of students – 4-year-old children. Boys and girls will both be part of the study. Therefore, students have to complete one year of private or public preschool to be eligible for the study.
Research Questions
The research questions will be answered through the analysis of the test scores. 1) Does the completion of public or private preschool increase students’ success in reading content area when they are in kindergarten? 2) Does the completion of public or private preschool increase students’ success in mathematics in kindergarten? 3) Are children who attend public or private preschool overall more prepared for the kindergarten program?
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be used in the study to test the effects of preschool in success in kindergarten will be a paired samples t-test. This will compare the means of two variables. The children that complete private preschool, their reading scores will be compared to those scores of children who attend public preschool.
Data Collection
The data collection process will entail the researcher administering a reading and math test to the students after they have completed preschool. Then a test will be given to the same students after the completion of kindergarten. The researcher will be able to see the progress of the students over the year and also compare the test scores between reading and math scores in the two different years the child attended.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
To participate in the study, the parents of the chosen students must complete a parental consent form. Part of the consent form will detail the guidelines of the research project as well as providing the risk parameters. The schools must also give their consent of the researchers to take a part in their school and look at their programs that they have implemented in their school setting.
It is important for the parents of the preschool children to be informed of parameters of the study, so that parents can make an informed decision about their children’s participation in the test. The consent form will also explain how parents may withdraw their child from the study at any time if they feel uncomfortable with the research. There is no need of deception to be used within the study. At the conclusion of the study, a debriefing will be given to the parents by the researcher. During this time, parents will be given a specific time to ask questions and receive feedback concerning the success of the research.
Data Analysis
The study will use a software program to help analyze the test scores of the participants. The program that will be used is called SPSS, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Through using this particular data analysis software, the researchers will be able to compare two sets of data with each other.
The researcher enters the statistical information into the program and the scores are placed in appropriate columns. By using this program, the researcher is trying to eliminate any bias.
Through the gathering and exploring of the data, researcher will determine whether children who attend public preschool or private preschool have a greater success in kindergarten reading and math scores.
Population
The researcher will gather test scores from all over the state of Alabama. There will be an equal number of private schools and public schools. The researcher would like to gather information from several different varieties of private school for the comparison of data. There will be an equal number of boys and girls that participate in the study. There will be an equal number of races and socioeconomic levels that are participants in the study. The researcher is trying to make the numbers surrounding the study and its participants as equal as possible.
References
Abouzeid, M. & Rosemery, C. (1994). Knowledge preschool – age children bring to literacy
tasks: the importance of “not holding back.” A Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference, 1-17.
Brember, I. & Davies, J. (1997). The effects of pre-school experience on reading attainment: a
four year cross-sectional study. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of
Experimental Educational Psychology, 17.3, 255-66.
Duncan, G., Claessens, A., Huston, A., Pagani, L., Engel, M., Sexton, H., Dowsett, C.,
Magnunson, K., Klebanov, P., Feinstein, L., Brooks-Gunn, J., Duckworth, K., Japel C. (2007) School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428-1446.
Early, D., Maxwell, K., Burchinal, M., Bender, R., Ebanks, C., Henry, G., Iriondo-Perez, J.,
Mashburn, A., Pianta, R., Alva, S., Bryant, D., Cai, K., Clifford, R., Griffin, J., Howes,
C., Jeon, H., Peisner-Feinberg, E., Vandergrift, N., Zill, N. (2007) Teachers’ education, classroom quality, and young children’s academic skills: results from seven studies of preschool programs. Child Development, 78, 558-580.
Lee, V., Brooks-Gunn, J., Schnur, E., Liaw, F. (1990) Are Head Start effects sustained? a
longitudinal follow-up comparison of disadvantaged children attending Head Start, no preschool, and other preschool programs. Child Development, 61, 495-507.
Lee, V. & Loeb, S. (1994). Where do Head Start attendees end up? one reason why preschool
effects fade out. American Educational Research Association, 1-40.
Lopata, C., Wallace, N., Finn, K. (2005) Comparison of academic achievement between
montessori and traditional education programs. Journal of Research in Childhood
Education, 20:1, 5- 13.
Morrow, L. (2004). Literacy development in the preschool years: a position statement of the
international reading association. The International Reading Association.
Perry, D. (1999) A study to determine the effects of pre-kindergarten on kindergarten readiness
and achievement in mathematics. Salem-Teikyo University, 1-57.
Seawell, J. & Ross, G. (1992). Relationships between a prekindergarten intervention program
and school success. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, 1- 46.
Shipley, G. & Oborn, C. (1996). A review of four preschool programs: a preschool model that
works. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association, 1-32.
Southern Association on Children Under Six (1986). Position statement from the southern
association on children under six. Little Rock, Arkansas, 1-5.
The Effects of School Uniforms on
Running Head: EFFECTS OF SCHOOL UNIFORMS
The Effects of School Uniforms on
Student Achievement and Discipline
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of
the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
C. Blayne Hardy
CHAPTER I
Introduction
The recent rise of violent attacks in some of the nation’s schools has focused an increasing amount of attention identifying ways to improve discipline and safety. Furthermore, the comprehensive mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act have caused many educators to scramble for new approaches to the delivery of high quality educational services while trying to balance the individual needs of an increasingly multicultural and diverse student body. In this environment, identifying opportunities for improving these aspects of the educational experience have resulted in a growing number of schools adopting uniform policies to help create a sense of belonging and camaraderie among their students which have shown significant promise in improving both discipline and academic performance (White, 2000) (Wilkins, 1999). In this regard, Milner (2004) reports that,
You can reduce competition and differentiation in dress by requiring school uniforms. This strategy reduces status differences by reducing the possibilities of people differing by ‘outlawing’ some kinds of variations. Requiring a standard school uniform is one way to eliminate the possibility of variation; nobody is in fashion or out of fashion (pp. 184-185).
Young people are subjected to all types of peer pressures, of course, and fashion and status symbols rank among the most important for many (Hoge, Foster, Nickell & Field, 2002) (Beckett, 2005). It is here that school uniforms can accomplish much in a highly cost-effective and straightforward fashion. According to Milner,
Uniforms can blunt some of the most blatant and damaging forms of status competition among students. To work, this strategy must be implemented in a fairly rigorous manner. Requiring jeans and tee-shirts is not enough. This will simply shift students' concern to the differences between the latest designer jeans (p. 185).
Furthermore, a standardized school uniform policy must ensure that a significant level of uniformity is achieved because these approaches are doomed to failure if students are allowed to wear expensive jewelry and accessories (Milner, 2004). It should be noted, though, that there are some important issues involved in requiring all students to wear the same uniform. In this regard, Milner cautions that,
Clearly, such rules involve suppressing certain forms of individualism and creativity. Many students will complain bitterly about the violation of their ‘constitutional rights
(p. 185).
Indeed, there are some fundamental First Amendment issues involved in restricting what students are allowed to wear and the Bill of Rights does not stop working at the schoolhouse steps (Evans, 1996). Nevertheless, such initiatives have passed constitutional muster in the past and the benefits derived from such approaches suggest that requiring all students to wear standard uniforms is a timely and worthwhile approach to improving both discipline and academic achievement in schools of all types and at all levels (Pickles, 2000). According to the general counsel of the National Association of Secondary School Principals "Clothing requirements are not considered a violation of their freedom of expression if there's a valid educational reason for imposing them" (Wingert, 1999 cited in Daughtery at p. 391).
In order to succeed, it is important for parents to get involved in supporting any school uniform initiative. As Daughtery (2002) emphasizes,
In recent years the strongest push for school uniforms has been initiated by parent groups seeking improved school safety. Often school uniforms are less expensive than the clothing that students typically wear to school (p. 390).
Despite the long-term cost savings involved, the costs associated with the initial purchase of uniforms may represent a significant burden for some families. Therefore, school districts seeking to implement a uniform policy should ensure that this issue is resolved prior to actual implementation. According to Daugherty, though, there are funding sources for such initiatives: “Grants of assistance have been available from federal or state agencies and from private sources, and graduates typically donate their uniforms to the school” (p. 391).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will examine the impact of national school uniform policies on both discipline and academic performance; therefore, a limitation is that certain qualitative considerations may not be identified. An additional limitation of the proposed study will involve the availability of relevant data from different types of schools. A delimitation of the proposed study will be the inability to generalize the findings across the board for all types of schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed study is to determine the impact of the adoption of uniform policies on the safety and academic performance in schools compared to those that have not.
Significance of the Study
According to Dwyer, Osher and Hoffman (2000), the multiple-victim shootings in rural and suburban schools in recent years have dramatically demonstrated that school violence cannot be viewed strictly as an urban issue, but rather cuts across demographic and socioeconomic lines as well. These authors emphasize that one of the proven techniques to help improve discipline in schools is the adoption of a school policy on uniforms (Dwyer et al.). Moreover, there are some other significant advantages to the adoption of a school uniform policy for all involved stakeholders, including, but not limited to, the following:
School safety.
1. Decreased violence and theft.
2. The identification of nonstudent intruders.
3. Prevention of gang attire.
4. Improved school attendance -- less embarrassment over clothing could increase attendance.
5. The safer the school, the more likely students will attend.
Academic performance.
1. Increased attention on academics (less on clothing).
2. Higher expectations from teachers.
Social benefits.
1. Uniforms may promote a sense of community and camaraderie.
2. School uniforms lessen the difference between rich and poor.
3. Less fashion-conscious school environment.
4. Reduction in clothing-related peer conflict.
Preparation for the future.
1. Uniforms can prepare students for work world where expectations are greater.
2. Uniforms create a sense of "teamwork."
3. Students are more likely to have a businesslike attitude.
School administrator benefits.
1. More time spent on instructional leadership.
2. Less time spent on clothing-related conflicts.
Parental benefits.
1. Eliminating the discussion over what to wear to school.
2. Uniforms promote efficiency and organization.
3. Less pressure from children to purchase trendy, high-priced clothing.
The foregoing benefits suggest that school uniform policies represent a timely and cost-effective approach to improving the learning environment in the nation’s schools and provide a wide range of advantages for all stakeholders.
Definition of Key Terms
Mandatory school uniform policies: Mandatory programs are usually implemented by a board of education or a similar administrative authority. Students are required to wear uniforms, although some exceptions--usually involving religious reasons--can be made; in those cases where parents cannot afford uniforms, most schools supply them (Daugherty, 2002).
Voluntary school uniform policies: Voluntary policies are typically implemented by parental consensus through local PTAs or PTOs; in this approach, parents are not required to dress their children in uniforms, despite the fact that the policy recommends them. Under voluntary programs, schools are not required to buy uniforms for students whose parents cannot afford them but most opt to do so. If children do not wear uniforms, they will not be reprimanded. A voluntary policy involves few legal issues (Daugherty, 2002).
Hypothesis
Schools that have adopted mandatory school uniform policies will outperform those that have used voluntary school uniform policies or have not implemented such a policy at all in terms of academic performance as well as enjoying a safer classroom environment. The independent variable will be the implementation of a mandatory school uniform policy; the two dependent variables will be (a) the discernible level of classroom discipline and safety and (b) academic performance levels.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Much of the current literature available on the subject of school uniforms deals with how to implement, enforce and maintain a consistent policy throughout the school or district without running afoul of the legal requirements that must be considered when attempting to instill such a policy. Comprehension of the countless legal standards is imperative by the institution in order to prevent lawsuits as well as a number of other challenges to the policy.
Court Cases
Challenges can be expected but the Supreme Court has upheld most policies permitting schools the option of requiring students to wear uniforms. A recent ruling from the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, San Francisco states:
The district’s uniform policies limit only one form of student expression (while leaving open many other channels for student communication), and they are consistent with the district’s goals of creating a productive, distraction-free educational environment for its students (Walsh, 2008, p. 8).
This ruling implies that as long as a district allows for other forms of student expression, such as school newspaper, student councils etc., and that the district is striving to maintain a distraction-free environment, then requiring students to wear uniforms is acceptable. In this ruling the court majority stated:
The school uniform policies were viewpoint- and content-neutral, and that…the policies passed muster as long as they furthered an important governmental interest unrelated to the suppression of free speech and had only incidental restrictions on protected speech (Walsh, p. 8).
The court decided that Clark County (the defendant in the case) met the required standards because school officials had submitted affidavits stating that the uniform policy promoted safety, enhanced the educational environment and improved student achievement.
An official from another school district across the country from Nevada’s Clark County Schools reiterates that school uniforms enhance the educational environment. Linda Rondeau, assistant superintendent of educational services at Pittsburg Unified School District states that “uniforms promote school safety and enhance the learning environment, and diminish the clothing competition” (Boutelle. 2008, p. 35). Her statement presents an additional, and important, reason for requiring uniforms, and that is to alleviate the pressure felt by many students to ‘fit in’. Peer pressure in the educational setting is a primary concern for many students. The effects of such pressure can many times lead to negative scenarios involving students, as well as for the parents and school administrators.
Many parents who decide to home-school their children cite the poor educational environment of the school setting as one of their primary purposes for teaching their children at home and a recent article states:
Most of the parents who home-school their children say that kids are able to focus solely on schoolwork because they are not distracted by peer pressure, violence, sex -- even clothing competition (Henderson, 2008, p. 124).
Boutelle states:
In an era where some parents seem unwilling or unable to draw the "clothes" line with their children, where pop culture influences kids' clothing choices as never before, and school safety--including gang violence--is at the top of everyone's minds, school uniforms and dress codes can play a significant role. But what that role should be is open to interpretation and can be a source of frustration--and skirmishes (Boutelle, p. 36).
Policies
The U.S. Department of Education published a “Manual on School Uniforms” in 1996 that acknowledged “the efficacy of school uniforms”. Mr. Clinton also promoted school uniforms that same year in his State of the Union address. Many schools have used the manual in their efforts to implement uniform policies, but only after gaining the approval of a majority of the parents whose students are affected by such policies. However, it is not only American schools that have discovered the effectiveness of uniforms, but other countries have discovered it as well. A recent report on schools in Iraq states:
Classrooms are extremely crowded, and two students must share a single desk. Still, even though packed, the school is bright, cheerful and modern. The library is well-stocked and the support staff, friendly. Students, crisply dressed in uniforms, are welcoming (Duncan, 2008, p. 18).
The current literature offers guidance for educators in regards to uniform policies with such ideas as do not include jeans and a t-shirt as part of the ensemble, and pick a set uniform and enforce the requirements without discrimination. One recent article suggests:
Despite the communicative elements of attire, which enjoy First Amendment protection, student attire that is disruptive, unsanitary, lewd, vulgar, or inconsistent with the school's objectives can be curtailed. Schools would be wise to implement and disseminate clear policies that include examples of prohibited attire (McCarthy, 2005, p. 50).
Another consideration would be that there can, and some would argue that there should be, different requirements for each gender. Two relevant court rulings have,
Upheld dress codes that have different standards for male and female attire. For example, earring prohibitions applied only to male students have been found rationally related to the school's objective of inhibiting gang influences because earrings can be used to convey gang-related messages (Barber v. Colorado Independent School District, 1995; Olesen v. Board of Education, 1987).
Studies Showing Improved Safety
The ultimate goal of the proposed study is to determine whether a school uniform policy will improve student safety and academic achievement. Other studies have shown that mandatory school uniform policies have improved safety in the school significantly. In 1995, Bill Clinton visited the Long Beach, California school district which was the first public school system in America to require uniforms. After only one year, there was a dramatic decline in “violence and discipline problems, as well as higher test scores” (Wilkins, 1999, p. 19).
During his 1999 State of the Union speech Clinton stated "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms."
Other studies have also shown that safety improved after the implementation of school uniform policies but very few studies have concentrated on the aspect of scholastic improvement along with safety. The proposed study will seek to do that. The study will have to consider other factors as well and the current literature spells out one of those factors in clear detail. That factor concerns the parents who fight either for, or against the implementation of a school uniform policy.
Evidence of such skirmishes is evident in the literature. One recent article articulates one mother’s concern over the relinquishment of parental control to governmental authorities. She states:
I question whether we are really doing our kids any favours by abdicating our authority to the school bureaucracy. Parents need to face head-on the challenges these uniforms try to cover over with grey flannel. If we have a problem with the downright sluttish dress of some of our daughters, tattoos, body piercing or outlandish hair colour, we should deal with these things ourselves (Ackerman, 2005, p. 57).
This type of attitude, however, does not take into account the overall effects of school uniforms; instead it concentrates on one individual, one student whose right to free speech might be affected. Many individuals rail against the conformity issues, while on the other hand some embrace such an environment. This is evidenced by an article written by another mother who states,
I was appalled when a minister of education ordered that secondary-school pupils should be allowed to dress in a distinct fashion that was mandated by their religious belonging. What I experienced was, frankly, a deep sense of revulsion at this insertion of a wedge of difference among youth, at a period in their lives when they should be saved from the separatist imbecilities of the so-called adult world (Soyinka, 2004, p. 6).
She went on to say, “My response was visceral and instinctive, and I realized that this move had savaged a deeply held social philosophy within me that I had always taken for granted.”
Whether students, or their parents for that matter, are for or against the imposed standards will certainly be taken into consideration during the proposed study, and it will be interesting to determine whether those individuals will feel more positively or negatively towards the policy after it has been implemented. Negative or positive attitudes should have no effects on the outcome(s) of the study as it is proposed, though certain scenarios will have an indirect effect on how the study is conducted.
An additional consideration to the school uniform policy might be the possibility of parents having the option of ‘opting out’ of the policy due to religious or other reasons. Texas has offered the opportunity where “under Texas law, school districts can require students to wear uniforms, but parents can object on philosophical or religious grounds” (Marks, 1998, p. 30).
All of the above stated considerations will be factored into the proposed study and it is hoped that the findings of the study will be conclusive enough to add to the already abundant literature currently available on the subject of school uniforms.
CHAPTER III
Methodology
To complete a comprehensive analysis of the proposed study will seek to answer, certain methodologies will be employed. A quantitative study of the data will be initiated in order to ascertain any statistical improvement in educational objectives.
Methods employed by the study will be to use questionnaires to gather necessary data. The study will observe two groups in order to provide the data necessary to come to a conclusion. The population of the two groups will be a set number of students from two separate schools. One school will have in place a uniform policy that requires the students to wear appropriate and standardized clothing during school hours. The other school will not have such a policy and will allow the students “free rein” in their choice of school attire. Each population will hail from a high school with similar demographics, and will be asked to answer the same research questions as the other group. It is especially important that each group be as similar in character as the other, so a set number of individuals from each gender will be chosen.
Additionally an age factor will be considered so that the average age of each group is as close as possible. In order to allow for a more complete study it is proposed that each group contain at least one-hundred students.
Answers to the research questions will be based on a scale of 1-5, with one being the lowest, and five being the highest. Each student will be asked to rate their experience, or lack thereof, in regards to either their wearing of uniforms or in their perception(s) of how it would be to wear a uniform. The totals for each group (for each specific question) will be compared statistically to ascertain any significant differences.
Research Questions
The research questions to be included on the questionnaire that the study will use to gather data will be (on a scale of 1-5): 1) Do you believe that uniforms help (or would help) you in your efforts to concentrate in class? 2) Do you believe that uniforms promote (or would promote) an environment conducive to learning? 3) Do you feel (or would you feel) safer when wearing a uniform? 4) Do you feel (or would you feel) that wearing a uniform would take away from the educational experience?
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be employed in the study to compare the differences between the data will be SPSS with Chi Square Analysis. “Chi Square assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups” (Research Methods, 2006).
Data Collection
The data collection process will include taking the questionnaires to the respective schools, handing them out to the appropriate students, having the students complete the questionnaires at that time, and then collecting the forms as they finish. The questionnaires can also be completed online.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
In order to receive a printed questionnaire or online access to a questionnaire, each student must submit a parental consent form. The parental consent form will be provided to the students beforehand. The consent form will spell out the guidelines for the study as well as providing the risk parameters.
The guidelines and risk parameters will be provided so that each potential subject of the study can make an informed decision as to whether to participate or not. No attempts at coercion will be attempted upon any potential subject of the study. The consent form will also contain a provision that allows for immediate withdraw from the study by any participant no longer desiring to participate. There will be no use of deception in this study as it is not necessary to further the proposed research. There will be a short debriefing at the conclusion of the study that will provide a forum for any feedback or questions from the participants.
Data Analysis
The study will employ the use of software programs that assist in research data analysis. One of the most popular of this type of software is called SPSS (initially the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).
This software has a number of advantages to offer a researcher including the ability to compare data with a number of different variables. When using this software, the data are entered into a row and column view so that each row represents an individual and each column represents a variable. The data can be manipulated to present a number of different scenarios while all specific individual data is kept a secret from the researcher. This type of software program will help eliminate any bias the researcher might have, allowing for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of the data.
The purpose of the study is to determine whether wearing school uniforms in the classroom alleviates problems with safety and violence, while at the same time enhancing the educational environment in order to improve the learning of the students in a more comprehensive manner.
The study hopes to gather data that either confirms or denies the determination, and hopes to present such conclusions in a straightforward and understandable manner for examination and analysis.
The Effects of School Uniforms on
Student Achievement and Discipline
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of
the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
C. Blayne Hardy
CHAPTER I
Introduction
The recent rise of violent attacks in some of the nation’s schools has focused an increasing amount of attention identifying ways to improve discipline and safety. Furthermore, the comprehensive mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act have caused many educators to scramble for new approaches to the delivery of high quality educational services while trying to balance the individual needs of an increasingly multicultural and diverse student body. In this environment, identifying opportunities for improving these aspects of the educational experience have resulted in a growing number of schools adopting uniform policies to help create a sense of belonging and camaraderie among their students which have shown significant promise in improving both discipline and academic performance (White, 2000) (Wilkins, 1999). In this regard, Milner (2004) reports that,
You can reduce competition and differentiation in dress by requiring school uniforms. This strategy reduces status differences by reducing the possibilities of people differing by ‘outlawing’ some kinds of variations. Requiring a standard school uniform is one way to eliminate the possibility of variation; nobody is in fashion or out of fashion (pp. 184-185).
Young people are subjected to all types of peer pressures, of course, and fashion and status symbols rank among the most important for many (Hoge, Foster, Nickell & Field, 2002) (Beckett, 2005). It is here that school uniforms can accomplish much in a highly cost-effective and straightforward fashion. According to Milner,
Uniforms can blunt some of the most blatant and damaging forms of status competition among students. To work, this strategy must be implemented in a fairly rigorous manner. Requiring jeans and tee-shirts is not enough. This will simply shift students' concern to the differences between the latest designer jeans (p. 185).
Furthermore, a standardized school uniform policy must ensure that a significant level of uniformity is achieved because these approaches are doomed to failure if students are allowed to wear expensive jewelry and accessories (Milner, 2004). It should be noted, though, that there are some important issues involved in requiring all students to wear the same uniform. In this regard, Milner cautions that,
Clearly, such rules involve suppressing certain forms of individualism and creativity. Many students will complain bitterly about the violation of their ‘constitutional rights
(p. 185).
Indeed, there are some fundamental First Amendment issues involved in restricting what students are allowed to wear and the Bill of Rights does not stop working at the schoolhouse steps (Evans, 1996). Nevertheless, such initiatives have passed constitutional muster in the past and the benefits derived from such approaches suggest that requiring all students to wear standard uniforms is a timely and worthwhile approach to improving both discipline and academic achievement in schools of all types and at all levels (Pickles, 2000). According to the general counsel of the National Association of Secondary School Principals "Clothing requirements are not considered a violation of their freedom of expression if there's a valid educational reason for imposing them" (Wingert, 1999 cited in Daughtery at p. 391).
In order to succeed, it is important for parents to get involved in supporting any school uniform initiative. As Daughtery (2002) emphasizes,
In recent years the strongest push for school uniforms has been initiated by parent groups seeking improved school safety. Often school uniforms are less expensive than the clothing that students typically wear to school (p. 390).
Despite the long-term cost savings involved, the costs associated with the initial purchase of uniforms may represent a significant burden for some families. Therefore, school districts seeking to implement a uniform policy should ensure that this issue is resolved prior to actual implementation. According to Daugherty, though, there are funding sources for such initiatives: “Grants of assistance have been available from federal or state agencies and from private sources, and graduates typically donate their uniforms to the school” (p. 391).
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will examine the impact of national school uniform policies on both discipline and academic performance; therefore, a limitation is that certain qualitative considerations may not be identified. An additional limitation of the proposed study will involve the availability of relevant data from different types of schools. A delimitation of the proposed study will be the inability to generalize the findings across the board for all types of schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed study is to determine the impact of the adoption of uniform policies on the safety and academic performance in schools compared to those that have not.
Significance of the Study
According to Dwyer, Osher and Hoffman (2000), the multiple-victim shootings in rural and suburban schools in recent years have dramatically demonstrated that school violence cannot be viewed strictly as an urban issue, but rather cuts across demographic and socioeconomic lines as well. These authors emphasize that one of the proven techniques to help improve discipline in schools is the adoption of a school policy on uniforms (Dwyer et al.). Moreover, there are some other significant advantages to the adoption of a school uniform policy for all involved stakeholders, including, but not limited to, the following:
School safety.
1. Decreased violence and theft.
2. The identification of nonstudent intruders.
3. Prevention of gang attire.
4. Improved school attendance -- less embarrassment over clothing could increase attendance.
5. The safer the school, the more likely students will attend.
Academic performance.
1. Increased attention on academics (less on clothing).
2. Higher expectations from teachers.
Social benefits.
1. Uniforms may promote a sense of community and camaraderie.
2. School uniforms lessen the difference between rich and poor.
3. Less fashion-conscious school environment.
4. Reduction in clothing-related peer conflict.
Preparation for the future.
1. Uniforms can prepare students for work world where expectations are greater.
2. Uniforms create a sense of "teamwork."
3. Students are more likely to have a businesslike attitude.
School administrator benefits.
1. More time spent on instructional leadership.
2. Less time spent on clothing-related conflicts.
Parental benefits.
1. Eliminating the discussion over what to wear to school.
2. Uniforms promote efficiency and organization.
3. Less pressure from children to purchase trendy, high-priced clothing.
The foregoing benefits suggest that school uniform policies represent a timely and cost-effective approach to improving the learning environment in the nation’s schools and provide a wide range of advantages for all stakeholders.
Definition of Key Terms
Mandatory school uniform policies: Mandatory programs are usually implemented by a board of education or a similar administrative authority. Students are required to wear uniforms, although some exceptions--usually involving religious reasons--can be made; in those cases where parents cannot afford uniforms, most schools supply them (Daugherty, 2002).
Voluntary school uniform policies: Voluntary policies are typically implemented by parental consensus through local PTAs or PTOs; in this approach, parents are not required to dress their children in uniforms, despite the fact that the policy recommends them. Under voluntary programs, schools are not required to buy uniforms for students whose parents cannot afford them but most opt to do so. If children do not wear uniforms, they will not be reprimanded. A voluntary policy involves few legal issues (Daugherty, 2002).
Hypothesis
Schools that have adopted mandatory school uniform policies will outperform those that have used voluntary school uniform policies or have not implemented such a policy at all in terms of academic performance as well as enjoying a safer classroom environment. The independent variable will be the implementation of a mandatory school uniform policy; the two dependent variables will be (a) the discernible level of classroom discipline and safety and (b) academic performance levels.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Much of the current literature available on the subject of school uniforms deals with how to implement, enforce and maintain a consistent policy throughout the school or district without running afoul of the legal requirements that must be considered when attempting to instill such a policy. Comprehension of the countless legal standards is imperative by the institution in order to prevent lawsuits as well as a number of other challenges to the policy.
Court Cases
Challenges can be expected but the Supreme Court has upheld most policies permitting schools the option of requiring students to wear uniforms. A recent ruling from the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit, San Francisco states:
The district’s uniform policies limit only one form of student expression (while leaving open many other channels for student communication), and they are consistent with the district’s goals of creating a productive, distraction-free educational environment for its students (Walsh, 2008, p. 8).
This ruling implies that as long as a district allows for other forms of student expression, such as school newspaper, student councils etc., and that the district is striving to maintain a distraction-free environment, then requiring students to wear uniforms is acceptable. In this ruling the court majority stated:
The school uniform policies were viewpoint- and content-neutral, and that…the policies passed muster as long as they furthered an important governmental interest unrelated to the suppression of free speech and had only incidental restrictions on protected speech (Walsh, p. 8).
The court decided that Clark County (the defendant in the case) met the required standards because school officials had submitted affidavits stating that the uniform policy promoted safety, enhanced the educational environment and improved student achievement.
An official from another school district across the country from Nevada’s Clark County Schools reiterates that school uniforms enhance the educational environment. Linda Rondeau, assistant superintendent of educational services at Pittsburg Unified School District states that “uniforms promote school safety and enhance the learning environment, and diminish the clothing competition” (Boutelle. 2008, p. 35). Her statement presents an additional, and important, reason for requiring uniforms, and that is to alleviate the pressure felt by many students to ‘fit in’. Peer pressure in the educational setting is a primary concern for many students. The effects of such pressure can many times lead to negative scenarios involving students, as well as for the parents and school administrators.
Many parents who decide to home-school their children cite the poor educational environment of the school setting as one of their primary purposes for teaching their children at home and a recent article states:
Most of the parents who home-school their children say that kids are able to focus solely on schoolwork because they are not distracted by peer pressure, violence, sex -- even clothing competition (Henderson, 2008, p. 124).
Boutelle states:
In an era where some parents seem unwilling or unable to draw the "clothes" line with their children, where pop culture influences kids' clothing choices as never before, and school safety--including gang violence--is at the top of everyone's minds, school uniforms and dress codes can play a significant role. But what that role should be is open to interpretation and can be a source of frustration--and skirmishes (Boutelle, p. 36).
Policies
The U.S. Department of Education published a “Manual on School Uniforms” in 1996 that acknowledged “the efficacy of school uniforms”. Mr. Clinton also promoted school uniforms that same year in his State of the Union address. Many schools have used the manual in their efforts to implement uniform policies, but only after gaining the approval of a majority of the parents whose students are affected by such policies. However, it is not only American schools that have discovered the effectiveness of uniforms, but other countries have discovered it as well. A recent report on schools in Iraq states:
Classrooms are extremely crowded, and two students must share a single desk. Still, even though packed, the school is bright, cheerful and modern. The library is well-stocked and the support staff, friendly. Students, crisply dressed in uniforms, are welcoming (Duncan, 2008, p. 18).
The current literature offers guidance for educators in regards to uniform policies with such ideas as do not include jeans and a t-shirt as part of the ensemble, and pick a set uniform and enforce the requirements without discrimination. One recent article suggests:
Despite the communicative elements of attire, which enjoy First Amendment protection, student attire that is disruptive, unsanitary, lewd, vulgar, or inconsistent with the school's objectives can be curtailed. Schools would be wise to implement and disseminate clear policies that include examples of prohibited attire (McCarthy, 2005, p. 50).
Another consideration would be that there can, and some would argue that there should be, different requirements for each gender. Two relevant court rulings have,
Upheld dress codes that have different standards for male and female attire. For example, earring prohibitions applied only to male students have been found rationally related to the school's objective of inhibiting gang influences because earrings can be used to convey gang-related messages (Barber v. Colorado Independent School District, 1995; Olesen v. Board of Education, 1987).
Studies Showing Improved Safety
The ultimate goal of the proposed study is to determine whether a school uniform policy will improve student safety and academic achievement. Other studies have shown that mandatory school uniform policies have improved safety in the school significantly. In 1995, Bill Clinton visited the Long Beach, California school district which was the first public school system in America to require uniforms. After only one year, there was a dramatic decline in “violence and discipline problems, as well as higher test scores” (Wilkins, 1999, p. 19).
During his 1999 State of the Union speech Clinton stated "If it means that teenagers will stop killing each other over designer jackets, then our public schools should be able to require their students to wear uniforms."
Other studies have also shown that safety improved after the implementation of school uniform policies but very few studies have concentrated on the aspect of scholastic improvement along with safety. The proposed study will seek to do that. The study will have to consider other factors as well and the current literature spells out one of those factors in clear detail. That factor concerns the parents who fight either for, or against the implementation of a school uniform policy.
Evidence of such skirmishes is evident in the literature. One recent article articulates one mother’s concern over the relinquishment of parental control to governmental authorities. She states:
I question whether we are really doing our kids any favours by abdicating our authority to the school bureaucracy. Parents need to face head-on the challenges these uniforms try to cover over with grey flannel. If we have a problem with the downright sluttish dress of some of our daughters, tattoos, body piercing or outlandish hair colour, we should deal with these things ourselves (Ackerman, 2005, p. 57).
This type of attitude, however, does not take into account the overall effects of school uniforms; instead it concentrates on one individual, one student whose right to free speech might be affected. Many individuals rail against the conformity issues, while on the other hand some embrace such an environment. This is evidenced by an article written by another mother who states,
I was appalled when a minister of education ordered that secondary-school pupils should be allowed to dress in a distinct fashion that was mandated by their religious belonging. What I experienced was, frankly, a deep sense of revulsion at this insertion of a wedge of difference among youth, at a period in their lives when they should be saved from the separatist imbecilities of the so-called adult world (Soyinka, 2004, p. 6).
She went on to say, “My response was visceral and instinctive, and I realized that this move had savaged a deeply held social philosophy within me that I had always taken for granted.”
Whether students, or their parents for that matter, are for or against the imposed standards will certainly be taken into consideration during the proposed study, and it will be interesting to determine whether those individuals will feel more positively or negatively towards the policy after it has been implemented. Negative or positive attitudes should have no effects on the outcome(s) of the study as it is proposed, though certain scenarios will have an indirect effect on how the study is conducted.
An additional consideration to the school uniform policy might be the possibility of parents having the option of ‘opting out’ of the policy due to religious or other reasons. Texas has offered the opportunity where “under Texas law, school districts can require students to wear uniforms, but parents can object on philosophical or religious grounds” (Marks, 1998, p. 30).
All of the above stated considerations will be factored into the proposed study and it is hoped that the findings of the study will be conclusive enough to add to the already abundant literature currently available on the subject of school uniforms.
CHAPTER III
Methodology
To complete a comprehensive analysis of the proposed study will seek to answer, certain methodologies will be employed. A quantitative study of the data will be initiated in order to ascertain any statistical improvement in educational objectives.
Methods employed by the study will be to use questionnaires to gather necessary data. The study will observe two groups in order to provide the data necessary to come to a conclusion. The population of the two groups will be a set number of students from two separate schools. One school will have in place a uniform policy that requires the students to wear appropriate and standardized clothing during school hours. The other school will not have such a policy and will allow the students “free rein” in their choice of school attire. Each population will hail from a high school with similar demographics, and will be asked to answer the same research questions as the other group. It is especially important that each group be as similar in character as the other, so a set number of individuals from each gender will be chosen.
Additionally an age factor will be considered so that the average age of each group is as close as possible. In order to allow for a more complete study it is proposed that each group contain at least one-hundred students.
Answers to the research questions will be based on a scale of 1-5, with one being the lowest, and five being the highest. Each student will be asked to rate their experience, or lack thereof, in regards to either their wearing of uniforms or in their perception(s) of how it would be to wear a uniform. The totals for each group (for each specific question) will be compared statistically to ascertain any significant differences.
Research Questions
The research questions to be included on the questionnaire that the study will use to gather data will be (on a scale of 1-5): 1) Do you believe that uniforms help (or would help) you in your efforts to concentrate in class? 2) Do you believe that uniforms promote (or would promote) an environment conducive to learning? 3) Do you feel (or would you feel) safer when wearing a uniform? 4) Do you feel (or would you feel) that wearing a uniform would take away from the educational experience?
Instrumentation
The instrument that will be employed in the study to compare the differences between the data will be SPSS with Chi Square Analysis. “Chi Square assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to compare the means of two groups” (Research Methods, 2006).
Data Collection
The data collection process will include taking the questionnaires to the respective schools, handing them out to the appropriate students, having the students complete the questionnaires at that time, and then collecting the forms as they finish. The questionnaires can also be completed online.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
In order to receive a printed questionnaire or online access to a questionnaire, each student must submit a parental consent form. The parental consent form will be provided to the students beforehand. The consent form will spell out the guidelines for the study as well as providing the risk parameters.
The guidelines and risk parameters will be provided so that each potential subject of the study can make an informed decision as to whether to participate or not. No attempts at coercion will be attempted upon any potential subject of the study. The consent form will also contain a provision that allows for immediate withdraw from the study by any participant no longer desiring to participate. There will be no use of deception in this study as it is not necessary to further the proposed research. There will be a short debriefing at the conclusion of the study that will provide a forum for any feedback or questions from the participants.
Data Analysis
The study will employ the use of software programs that assist in research data analysis. One of the most popular of this type of software is called SPSS (initially the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).
This software has a number of advantages to offer a researcher including the ability to compare data with a number of different variables. When using this software, the data are entered into a row and column view so that each row represents an individual and each column represents a variable. The data can be manipulated to present a number of different scenarios while all specific individual data is kept a secret from the researcher. This type of software program will help eliminate any bias the researcher might have, allowing for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of the data.
The purpose of the study is to determine whether wearing school uniforms in the classroom alleviates problems with safety and violence, while at the same time enhancing the educational environment in order to improve the learning of the students in a more comprehensive manner.
The study hopes to gather data that either confirms or denies the determination, and hopes to present such conclusions in a straightforward and understandable manner for examination and analysis.
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