BIBLE BOOM: A COMPARISON OF DISCIPLINARY REFERRALS IN ALABAMA PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS THAT OFFER THE BIBLE AND ITS INFLUENCE AND SCHOOLS THAT DO NOT TEACH THE BIBLE
A proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Anthony May
Chapter I
Introduction
Problem Statement
The first American school was established in 1643 nearly 150 years before the establishment of the United States. For nearly 320 years this establishment was built upon and cornered around teaching of the Holy Bible. In 1963 a Supreme Court ruling (School District of Abington Township v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203,225) decided it was “unconstitutional” to continue the practice of teaching the Bible in public schools. The book that has been circulating longer than any book in history and gives a narrative on the creation of earth and the human race was asked to be removed from public schools. The book that teaches to be generous and kind while treating others better than yourself was asked to be removed from public schools. The book that teaches to be consumed with a spirit of love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control (Galatians 5:22) was asked to be removed from public schools. Thou shall not commit murder, steal, commit adultery, thou shall honor thy father and mother, etc; get it out! That makes sense doesn’t it?
This study will evaluate the number of disciplinary referrals of students who are enrolled in schools that offer the approved course The Bible in History and Literature in the state of Alabama and students who are not enrolled in those schools.
Purpose of the Study
This study is to determine whether there is a significant difference in disciplinary referrals for Alabama high school students who attend schools that offer the state approved curriculum on teaching the Bible and Alabama high school students who attend schools that don’t offer the state approved curriculum on teaching the Bible.
This study will investigate the amount of any type of disciplinary referral to all students in a school whether they attend a school that offers Bible curriculum or a school that does not offer Bible curriculum. Percentages and mean scores will be calculated on students that actually attend the Bible class to give contrast to the direct correlation of the affect of the subject area and the indirect affect of the subject area.
Significance of the Study
A few years ago an FCA group at Opelika High School in Alabama decided they wanted their school to be a better place. Every athlete would make sure that no one sat alone at lunch or break. If they saw someone sitting alone they would go sit with them and engage in conversation. What seemed like an innocent act that was motivated by the teachings in the Bible turned out to affect the entire school. Fights decreased by 75% and disciplinary referrals dropped over 50%.
Whether society is influenced negatively or positively by the extraction of God and the Bible is a study that would be difficult at best to determine. There are many variables that would affect social behaviors and morals. This study will enlighten us to whether students’ behaviors are affected or influenced by Biblical teachings.
Definition of Terms
Bible – the Christian Bible inspired as the Word of God; 66 books: 39 from the Old Testament, 27 from the New Testament.
God – the one God. God of Abraham, Issac, and Jacob.
Curriculum – a set of courses, and their content, offered at a school.
Direct Influence – students’ behavioral outcome that is actively involved in the class The Bible: In History and Literature.
Indirect Influence – students’ behavioral outcome that is enrolled in a school that offers the state approved curriculum for The Bible: In History and Literature but not actively involved with the class.
Fellowship of Christian Athletes (FCA) - the largest Christian sports organization in America. FCA focuses on serving local communities by equipping, empowering and encouraging people to make a difference for Christ.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study will be limited to Alabama schools that offer The Bible: In History and Literature and schools of the same size that do not offer the course. The Alabama Board of Education has allowed any of the over 500 high schools to offer the course. At this time less than 10% of schools are offering this approved curriculum.
This study does not intend to investigate practices of religion or prayer in schools but to simply see if the influence of the Bible affects students behavior overall.
This study will not be limited to any student in the schools that offer the approved state curriculum. All students’ disciplinary referrals will be accounted for. The data will be disaggregated however to show to direct impact to students and the indirect impact.
Hypothesis
Students’ behavior is positively affected by offering the elective The Bible: In History and Literature whether directly or indirectly. Students, whether they take the class or not, have fewer behavior problems in the form of disciplinary referrals than students who are in a school that does not offer the course.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
Violent Crime Data
FBI Unified Crime Reports (2008) suggest violent crimes since 1963 have increased from 168.2 per 100,000 inhabitants to 466.9 per 100,000 inhabitants. A study by Presser and Stinson (2001) suggest that the percentage of adults who actually attended religious services during the previous weekend dropped from 42% in 1965 to 26% in 1994.
Our schools and our society have dismissed and excused God and the Bible from our lives. Our culture has thrived and prospered on the laws and teaching of scripture. God is stamped on our money, embedded in our pledge of allegiance, and is the essence of our constitution. We have thrown out the cornerstone to our success and prosperity while, ironically, the Bible teaches the history of God’s people and what happens to their livelihood when they become arrogant and dismiss God from their culture. Our public schools are being abandoned for private schools (schools that teach Christianity), our government leaders are corrupt, and our economy is failing. History repeats itself. The Bible also shows the trend of how God’s people (the Israelites) continued on a vicious cycle of returning to captivity. After coming out of Egypt the Israelites were taken into captivity hundreds of years later into Babylon and Syria. The Israelites constant rebelliousness from God leads them into a history of slavery. Maybe my high school history teacher wasn’t just giving me empty reasons to stay awake. (Bible, 2001)
Religious Tolerance
“Americans misreport how often they vote, how much they give to charity, and how frequently they use illegal drugs. People are not entirely accurate in their self-reports about other areas as well. Males exaggerate their number of sexual partners; university workers are not very honest about reporting how many photocopies they make. Actual attendance at museums, symphonies and operas does not match survey results. We should not expect religious behavior to be immune to such misreporting." Kirk Hadaway (1993), a sociologist at the United Church of Christ.
Ask any teacher what would influence their classroom success and students’ behavior will be in the top three, number one in my school. About 40% of Americans lie about going to church. Why? Guilt? Needing to fit in? Wanting to be a part? There isn’t a concrete answer but being able to manage a students’ behavior by simply adding an elective that teaches this subject that almost half of Americans want to be a part of subconsciously sounds appealing to teachers who want successful classrooms. If this study’s outcome is valid we could have a foothold to getting our classrooms in order. Next would be the students’ outlook on their potential thus influencing their motivation and drive. Ultimately our schools could produce citizens that give back and contribute to the good of our state, nation, and world. (Boles, 1965)
Biblical History
The Holy Bible (2001) is the longest circulating book in recorded history. The Old Testament was written from approximately 1500 BC to 400 BC then was followed by 400 years of silence until Jesus Christ, who was prophesied to come throughout the Old Testament, returned and began the movement of Christianity. The New Testament was written from 40 AD to about 90 AD where the cannon of scriptures were closed with the book of Revelation. (Bible, 2001)
Scribes would methodically copy word for word and count every word sentence and paragraph to ensure accuracy and wholeness so the books would be preserved and passed down without flaw. If one error were made the scroll would be destroyed completely.
The Case for Teaching the Bible
Where the argument of “Separation of Church and State” and whether Biblical teaching in public schools is constitutional rages on one argument for teaching the Bible is Americans attitude towards the Bible and the ignorance about it that ensues.
A Religious Literacy poll shows that nearly two-thirds of Americans believe the Bible answers “all or most of life’s basic questions” while on the same token only about half of U.S. adults can name one of the books of the Gospel (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) while most cannot even identify that Genesis is the first book of the Bible. (Van Biema, 1996)
This book is not only the longest publish book in history but it is also the best seller each and every year. I don’t recall seeing that fancy “New York Times Best Seller” sticker on the cover. The Bible is deemed as the most influential book in history. Forget learning the religion, this book has the depth to increase students’ understanding of history, Greek and Hebrew translation, and comprehension of advanced subject matter. Students of many varying backgrounds are enrolled in the Bible classes in a Texas High School. One student, Rachel Williams, who is an atheist, takes the class to broaden her horizon and “If somebody is going to carry on a sophisticated conversation with me, I would rather know what they're talking about than look like a moron or fight my way through it," she says.(Van Biema, 1996)
The Bible, Religion, and the Public Schools
Both sides of the case of the Bible in schools have been argued well before the Supreme Court ruled against the school systems and removed prayer and scripture readings. Our country was founded on the basis of religious persecution (Fenwick, 1989). People fled towards this country to worship God without fear of government thus deciding that government cannot establish a religion. The side against Biblical reading has a valid point that one shouldn’t be forced to read the Bible in school however this was what the founders of this country established. That being said, Biblical principles do not force one upon a relationship with God but only implies our necessity to His grace and mercy. Religion should not be forced down someone’s throat but a person’s discomfort of the material should not render it void from everywhere they want to go and be a part of.
The history of this country and the basis of our beliefs must be examined to fully understand the motive and methods behind required reading of scriptures. Simply tossing out the cornerstones of the principles of our country can and will cause the ruin of our schools, economics, and our social structure.
Should the Children Pray
“Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers and our Country.” This is the prayer that was written by the New York State Board of Regents (Fenwick, 1989) that got all of the dust stirred up and cause ten students to file a lawsuit that ultimately lead to the Supreme Court. Even though the prayer was carefully considered so all faiths would be included, few did not appreciate the sentiment. Dr. Franklin Clark Fry (Fenwick, 1989), President of the Lutheran Church in America, was quoted “When the positive content of faith has been bleached out of a prayer, I am not too concerned about retaining what is left.” There are so many people that find hope, comfort, and peace in a religion and when faced with Christianity find meaning, purpose, and love as well, however when a few do not see the beauty in any of religion there is some overwhelming need to please the minority no matter the outcome of the majority.
Summary
A war wages on about restoring Biblical teaching to public schools vs. removing even more signs of Christianity. Both sides seem soft to the others point whether they admit it or not. People against the Bible in schools cannot ignore the number of violent crime and decay of society and wonder if there really is something to all this “religious stuff”. On the other hand Christians want their religion in all aspects of their lives but are apologetic about it and doesn’t want to make anyone mad. The overwhelming consensus is the Bible in and of itself is powerfully influential and teaches good morals and actions.
So where do we go from here? Is the Bible bad enough until things actually get bad and is the Bible good enough but can be sacrificed for the ease of a minorities self health? There is a long history of trying to remove God from our society but does that out-weigh the even longer history of the teachings of the Bible?
CHAPTER III
Methodology
A quantitative approach will be used to analyze whether schools that implement the curriculum that teaches about the Bible using The Bible and Its Influence affects, either directly or indirectly, the disciplinary actions of students.
Research Questions
1. What is the ratio of disciplinary referrals to student numbers for the entire student body for schools that do not utilize The Bible and Its Influence as a curriculum?
2. What is the ratio of disciplinary referrals to student numbers for the entire student body for a schools that utilize The Bible and Its Influence as a curriculum?
3. What is the ratio of disciplinary referrals for students who participate in The Bible and Its Influence as a course?
4. Is there a significant difference in the number of disciplinary referrals in schools that teach The Bible and Its Influence as a course to those schools that do not teachThe Bible and Its Influence as a course?
5. Can the number of student future disciplinary referrals be predicted by whether a school teaches The Bible and Its Influence as a course?
Population
Schools from Southeast Alabama will be selected and differentiated by whether the Bible curriculum is taught in that system. The schools chosen will contain the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades. Gender and race will be noted but will not be included in the overall study because the desired results are the overall affect of the Bible curriculum.
Data Collection
The disciplinary referrals will be collected from each school for the past three years. Students will be identified as either enrolled in the Bible curriculum or not enrolled in the Bible curriculum. Students names, demographics, or backgrounds is necessary in the data collection thus only numbers are needed.
Instrumentation
Microsoft SPSS will be used as database collection software to analyze trends and organize data. SPSS will also be used to determine predictions of future trends in disciplinary referrals by utilizing regression analysis and Pearson’s r will be used to determine if there is a correlation between the variables.
Data Analysis
A Pearson’s r correlation will be used to analyze trends in student’s behavior. Regression analysis will be used in predicting future trends in students’ behavior. If no significant difference is found, the null hypothesis will be accepted. If there is evidence as to whether implementing the Bible curriculum affects student behavior through means of disciplinary referrals then the alternate hypothesis will be accepted and the null hypothesis will be rejected. The null hypothesis will be accepted if p>.05. If p,.05 then the alternative hypothesis will be accepted.
Ethical Treatment of Population
No student will be harmed or identified in this study. Only number of disciplinary referrals or the severity of the referral will be collected for students as a whole in schools that do not offer the Bible curriculum and students as a whole in schools that do offer the Bible curriculum along with student groups who actually take the course.
References
The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. 2001, Crossway Bibles.
Good News Publishers.
Fenwick, Lynda Beck. Should the Children Pray?: A Historical, Judicial, and Political
Examination of Public School Prayer. 1989. Markham Press Fund of Baylor.
Boles, Donald E. The Bible, Religion, and the Public Schools. 1965.
Iowa State University Press.
United States Crime Rates 1960-2007. FBI Crime Reports. Copyright 2008. Retrieved from
http://www.disastercenter.com/crime/uscrime.htm
Presser and Stinson. Church Attendance Studies. 1994 (more references cited on site). Retrieved
from http://www.religioustolerancc.org/rel_rate.htm
Van Biema, David. The Case for Teaching the Bible. Time Magazine Online. 1996. Retrieved
from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1601845-1,00.html
Monday, April 27, 2009
A Comparison Study of Block Scheduling with Traditional Scheduling Concerning their Effect on ACT Scores in Alabama Schools
Running head: SCHEDULING AND ACT SCORES
A Comparison Study of Block Scheduling with Traditional Scheduling Concerning their Effect on ACT Scores in Alabama Schools
A Proposal
Presented to the Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of requirements for
EDU 6691
By Teresa A. Duppstadt
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Block scheduling in high schools is being pushed from a variety of sources. These sources offer long lists of euphoric values for block scheduling with no hard data and without any consideration for the down side. Regrettably, school boards around the world have been adopting this experimental program based completely on opinions rather than hard data. While there may be some successful stories at several schools, the case for block scheduling has not been established through serious, long-term scientific studies. The case for block scheduling is teneous and, in some cases, contradicted by scientific studies. It may fare no better than Modular Scheduling which was around in the 70’s and 80’s. (Lindsay, 2008) This study will provide hard data concerning block scheduling and its effects on academic performance so educators can better decide whether block scheduling is improving academic performance. Researchers feel educators focus on the convenience of block scheduling for themselves and students instead of looking at possible academic concerns. While it may have some positive aspects,
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to determine if there are positive or negative effects on ACT scores related to the use of block scheduling or traditional scheduling in Alabama high schools. The results will offer parents and educators hard data to aide in assisting their decision process concerning block schedules and traditional schedules as they relate to ACT scores. Many schools across the country have been looking at scheduling as a major issue; however, Alabama hasn’t really addressed the issue of scheduling and how it may be affecting students. The major purpose of this study is to provide Alabama educators with hard data concerning the relationship block scheduling and ACT scores have in Alabama high schools.
Significance of the Study
This study will reveal the relationship between block and traditional scheduling on ACT scores in Alabama high schools. The findings can be used to influence scheduling policies that may aid in improving academic achievement of Alabama high school students. The lack of literature found makes this research very valuable and very much needed. Once the research is complete the results can be compared to the results found in other states. The comparison will help educators in Alabama make better informed decisions concerning scheduling.
Definition of Terms
ACT was called the College Testing Program but in 1996 changed its name to ACT Inc which doesn’t stand for anything. This is the standardized achievement examination for college admissions. This test scores students in four areas: Math, English, Reading and Science reasoning. They now offer an optional writing test. This test is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the United States. (ACT, 2009)
SAT Reasoning Test formerly Scholastic Aptitude Test and Scholastic Assessment Test is standardized test for college admissions in the United States. This test contains three sections students are scored in: math, critical reading and writing along with other subsections scored separately. This test is more popular among colleges in the coasts and the ACT is more popular in the Midwest and South. There are a few schools who do not accept the SAT at all. (SAT, 2009)
Modular scheduling uses the concept of modules instead of blocks or periods. A module allows students to schedule classes and still leave time for any activities that interest them. For example you will have some classes that meet for 15 minutes, some for 20 minutes, and some meet for 10 minutes allowing 20 modules per day. The length and time of modules can vary. You may be in one class for a total of 40 minutes (2 mods). This type of scheduling is very hard to understand and was introduced and used only briefly. Block scheduling was a modification of modular scheduling. (Lindsay, 2008)
Block scheduling consists of 4 blocks each 80 to over 100 minutes in duration. Students with this type of scheduling have 4 classes each semester with a total of 8 classes a year. The duration of each subject area is one semester. A school year is comprised of two semesters. For example, algebra I is taken the first semester and some other subject is taken the second semester. This type of scheduling allows student flexibility but provides gaps in the learning process. Math, for example, needs to be taken in sequence. When a student takes a math class the first semester of one year and doesn’t enroll in the next math class until first semester of the next year, he has had six months pass with no math. This gap in the learning process is detrimental to the Math learning process. Math builds on each subject area. (Trent & Newman, 2002)
Traditional scheduling is comprised of seven or eight periods with subject area being covered in one complete year. Each class is 45-50 minutes in duration. Students have seven or eight subjects per year. The student has an entire year to learn the same material a student in the block system learns in one semester. Traditional scheduling was the only type of scheduling in use years ago. Today, some schools that have moved away from it are coming back to it. (Hackman, Curtis & Brown, 2002)
GPA is a student’s grade point average. It is calculated in most schools using weighted averages. The elective classes do not carry as much weight as do core classes. Hard data is used to describe data that contains numbers. For the purpose of this study hard data means ACT scores.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Problem
The study is limited to high schools in Alabama that use block schedule or traditional schedule. It is further limited to only how these types of schedules affect ACT scores. The results of this study can be generalized to determine the affect of block and traditional scheduling and ACT scores in Alabama High Schools.
This study does not take into consideration any other factors that may contribute to ACT scores. This can include: students attention span; retention; teacher attitudes; students attitude toward scheduling; academic performance in each subject; students GPA; curriculum standards; content covered; attendance; students attitude toward learning; and students behavior, just to mention a few factors. (Lindsay, 2008) I believe all these factors play a role in academic performance at any school regardless of scheduling. The researcher will limit the focus of this study to the effects block and traditional scheduling have on ACT scores. This study will not deal with any school which uses a modified block system or any other type of scheduling other than traditional and block scheduling.
Hypothesis
Students in Alabama high schools with block scheduling will have lower ACT scores than those using traditional scheduling.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Introduction
Studies concerning block scheduling and its affect on ACT scores have been conducted in other states across the country. This literature review reveals the effect block and traditional scheduling have on ACT scores in other states. Some studies revealed significant drops in ACT scores while others revealed significant increases in ACT scores. A few studies revealed no significant increase or decrease in ACT scores as it relates to type of scheduling.
Literature Revealing Significant Drop in ACT Scores
Studies concerning this matter have been conducted in other states across the country. Iowa State University in conjunction with ACT inc.com(2002) completed a series of studies regarding the effects of the block scheduling on ACT scores in Iowa and Illinois. The findings showed block scheduling hurt ACT scores noting students in schools with block scheduling produced “markedly lower” ACT scores than students in schools with traditional scheduling. A study performed in Texas reported that with the exception of graduation rates significant difference was found for all other dependent variables to include ACT scores (McCumber, 2002). Block scheduling over traditional scheduling has been noted by parents to drop SAT scores. In 2004 a parent in Delaware wrote the following:
I live in a small beach community in Delaware. For years, our local high school was the pride of the state-top in state testing, SAT scores/college admissions, and various athletic awards. But six, years ago, our school superintendent imposed the “sentence” of 4x4 block scheduling!...We know have the lowest AP completion scores in the state, our SAT scores are falling way below the national trends, our state testing scores are falling. We have been labeled a school “at risk”. It has been 6 years of failure, in every definition of the word.
…Recently we have started another movement to rid our system of this nightmare: we provided a petition with numerous signatures, a school board member in favor of returning to the traditional strip schedule, provided a clear presentation of the downward trend in our school, and after reading your web site, I called the superintendent on many of the points you raised. We asked them to rethink the flawed scheduling and to consider returning to the traditional schedule. The vote was tied (3-3) and our very weak school board president, state the following, “As president I have to cast the deciding vote. I am voting in favor of staying with the 4x4 block, because my daughter just loves it.” When parents screamed that this is not just about her daughter, she refused to answer.
Later in 2004 with the election of two new board members they won their battle and are going back to a traditional schedule. She further tells everyone to never give up for change, especially when you know it is needed. Another parent wrote to Lindsay saying “SAT scores have fallen every year since block went into effect”. A parent from Lexington High School is quoted by Lindsay as saying in 1997 “Lexington High School posted scores well above the state average in 1992-1993, before they adopted the A/B block schedule. Since then their scored have declined”. (Lindsay, 2008)
Literature Revealing No Significant Difference in ACT Scores
Another study compiled in 2006 called the “Traditional and Block Scheduling for College Science Preparation” found block scheduling appeared to provide no advantage to students in terms of college preparation in science. (Lindsay, 2008) Yet another study “Effects of a High School Block Scheduling Program on Students” found no significant decline in ACT scores on schools with years of block scheduling, note this study held IQ constant and thus co varied (Trenta & Newman, 2002).
Literature Revealing Significant Gains in ACT Scores
Another study “The Effects of Block Scheduling on High School Academic Achievement” revealed gains in mathematics and reading scores when looking at ACT and level tests (Lewis, Dugan, Winokur & Cobb, 2005). In 1992, Parkland High School in North Carolina changed from a six-period day to a 4-block and noted SAT scores dropped the first year and did not improve (as of 1995) to the level they were before the change took place. They did note a slight increase in ACT scores. (Lindsay, 2008) Another study conducted in Tennessee revealed block scheduling attained the highest mean ACT score with traditional scheduling having a lower mean ACT score (Carter, 2003).
A study conducted in Tennessee revealed while teachers believe block scheduling adversely affects student’s achievement, no such overall affect was found in the sampling undertaken (Ford, 2001) Another study compiled in 2006 called the “Traditional and Block Scheduling for College Science Preparation” found block scheduling appeared to provide no advantage to students in terms of college preparation in science. (Lindsay, 2008) Another study conducted in Tennessee revealed block scheduling attained the highest mean ACT score with traditional scheduling having a lower mean ACT score (Carter, 2003).
Significance of Literature
The whole basis for this research is on literature read and researcher’s own experience. It provides proof other schools in other states are noticing the effect block scheduling has on ACT scores. The researcher was unable to locate any material pertaining to the effects block scheduling has on ACT scores in Alabama Schools. The literature read was significant in forming the reason why studying the effect block scheduling and traditional scheduling has on ACT scores in Alabama schools is so valuable and important. The literature further provided the basis for the hypothesis of this study.
Chapter III
Methodology
Methods Undertaken
This study is being conducted to find out the impact 4 x 4 block scheduling has on ACT scores in comparison to traditional scheduling. This study is a Quantitative study with a Quasi-experimental design. The dependent variable is ACT scores, while the treatment variables are block scheduling and traditional scheduling. The researcher will contact school counselors who have either traditional or 4 x 4 block scheduling for ACT scores. The selection of ACT scores will be random using no names. Once the data are collected and coded it will be analyzed. Results will be given in a table, a graph and explained in detail.
Research Questions
The questions this research will answer are the following:
1. How is block scheduling affecting ACT scores in Alabama schools?
2. How are traditional scheduling affecting ACT scores in Alabama schools?
3. How many schools in Alabama have block scheduling?
4. How many schools in Alabama have traditional scheduling?
5. Are there significant differences in the ACT scores of students in schools that have a 4 x 4 block scheduling vs. students’ ACT scores in traditional scheduled schools?
Population
The population of this study will consist of all 11th and 12th graders with 4 x 4 block scheduling and traditional scheduling in Alabama who have taken the ACT.
Data Collection
ACT scores of 11th and 12th graders throughout Alabama will be collected from a state web-site who have 4 x 4 block scheduling and traditional scheduling. Only quantitative data will be collected.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used to analyze will be t-test because we have two variables. The variables are 1=ACT scores with 4 x 4 block scheduling and 2=ACT scores with traditional scheduling. SPSS software will be used to perform the t-test. The results will be given in a table, graph and explained in detail.
Data Analysis
The t-test will compare the two variables. When comparing variables, if p>.05 the null hypothesis will be accepted or if p< .05 the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. Descriptive data will also be analyzed.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
All permissions will be gained from schools or authorizing organization. No information except age and ACT score will be provided to researcher.
References
ACT examination. (2009). Wikipedia. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from http://wikipedia.com
Carter, M. (2003). Comparison of Traditional and Block Schedules on the ACT Mathematics Test and Algebra I State Examinations and on Student Perceptions. Dai-A, 63(07), 2483.
Ford, L. (2001). Determining the Educational Impact of Block Scheduling in the Jackson-Madison County Schools: An Analysis of Student Achievement Data (Tennessee). Dai-A, 62(06), 1993
Hackman, D., Curtis, C., & Brown, K. (2002, July). Block Scheduling in Schools May Impact Student Achievement/ACT Scores. Iowa State University News Service, 29-30.
Lewis, C., Dugan, J., Winokur, M., & Cobb, R. (2005). The Effects of Block Scheduling on High School Academic Achievement. Nassp Bulletin, 89(645), 72-87
Lindsay, J. (2008). The Case against Block Scheduling. In Personal. Appleton, Wisconsin. Retrieved February 9, 2009, from JeffLindsey.com Web site: http://www.jefflindsay.com/block2.shtml
McCumber, P. (2002). A Comparative Analysis of Traditional Versus Block and Accelerated Block Scheduled High Schools over and Eight-Year Period in a Large Urban School District. Dai-A, 63(02), 486.
SAT examination. (2009). Wikipedia. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from http://wikipedia.com
Trenta, L., & Newman, I. (2002). Effects of a High School Block Scheduling Program on Students: A Four-Year Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Block Scheduling on Student Outcome Variables. American Secondary Education, 31(1), 54-71.
A Comparison Study of Block Scheduling with Traditional Scheduling Concerning their Effect on ACT Scores in Alabama Schools
A Proposal
Presented to the Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of requirements for
EDU 6691
By Teresa A. Duppstadt
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Block scheduling in high schools is being pushed from a variety of sources. These sources offer long lists of euphoric values for block scheduling with no hard data and without any consideration for the down side. Regrettably, school boards around the world have been adopting this experimental program based completely on opinions rather than hard data. While there may be some successful stories at several schools, the case for block scheduling has not been established through serious, long-term scientific studies. The case for block scheduling is teneous and, in some cases, contradicted by scientific studies. It may fare no better than Modular Scheduling which was around in the 70’s and 80’s. (Lindsay, 2008) This study will provide hard data concerning block scheduling and its effects on academic performance so educators can better decide whether block scheduling is improving academic performance. Researchers feel educators focus on the convenience of block scheduling for themselves and students instead of looking at possible academic concerns. While it may have some positive aspects,
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to determine if there are positive or negative effects on ACT scores related to the use of block scheduling or traditional scheduling in Alabama high schools. The results will offer parents and educators hard data to aide in assisting their decision process concerning block schedules and traditional schedules as they relate to ACT scores. Many schools across the country have been looking at scheduling as a major issue; however, Alabama hasn’t really addressed the issue of scheduling and how it may be affecting students. The major purpose of this study is to provide Alabama educators with hard data concerning the relationship block scheduling and ACT scores have in Alabama high schools.
Significance of the Study
This study will reveal the relationship between block and traditional scheduling on ACT scores in Alabama high schools. The findings can be used to influence scheduling policies that may aid in improving academic achievement of Alabama high school students. The lack of literature found makes this research very valuable and very much needed. Once the research is complete the results can be compared to the results found in other states. The comparison will help educators in Alabama make better informed decisions concerning scheduling.
Definition of Terms
ACT was called the College Testing Program but in 1996 changed its name to ACT Inc which doesn’t stand for anything. This is the standardized achievement examination for college admissions. This test scores students in four areas: Math, English, Reading and Science reasoning. They now offer an optional writing test. This test is accepted by all four-year colleges and universities in the United States. (ACT, 2009)
SAT Reasoning Test formerly Scholastic Aptitude Test and Scholastic Assessment Test is standardized test for college admissions in the United States. This test contains three sections students are scored in: math, critical reading and writing along with other subsections scored separately. This test is more popular among colleges in the coasts and the ACT is more popular in the Midwest and South. There are a few schools who do not accept the SAT at all. (SAT, 2009)
Modular scheduling uses the concept of modules instead of blocks or periods. A module allows students to schedule classes and still leave time for any activities that interest them. For example you will have some classes that meet for 15 minutes, some for 20 minutes, and some meet for 10 minutes allowing 20 modules per day. The length and time of modules can vary. You may be in one class for a total of 40 minutes (2 mods). This type of scheduling is very hard to understand and was introduced and used only briefly. Block scheduling was a modification of modular scheduling. (Lindsay, 2008)
Block scheduling consists of 4 blocks each 80 to over 100 minutes in duration. Students with this type of scheduling have 4 classes each semester with a total of 8 classes a year. The duration of each subject area is one semester. A school year is comprised of two semesters. For example, algebra I is taken the first semester and some other subject is taken the second semester. This type of scheduling allows student flexibility but provides gaps in the learning process. Math, for example, needs to be taken in sequence. When a student takes a math class the first semester of one year and doesn’t enroll in the next math class until first semester of the next year, he has had six months pass with no math. This gap in the learning process is detrimental to the Math learning process. Math builds on each subject area. (Trent & Newman, 2002)
Traditional scheduling is comprised of seven or eight periods with subject area being covered in one complete year. Each class is 45-50 minutes in duration. Students have seven or eight subjects per year. The student has an entire year to learn the same material a student in the block system learns in one semester. Traditional scheduling was the only type of scheduling in use years ago. Today, some schools that have moved away from it are coming back to it. (Hackman, Curtis & Brown, 2002)
GPA is a student’s grade point average. It is calculated in most schools using weighted averages. The elective classes do not carry as much weight as do core classes. Hard data is used to describe data that contains numbers. For the purpose of this study hard data means ACT scores.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Problem
The study is limited to high schools in Alabama that use block schedule or traditional schedule. It is further limited to only how these types of schedules affect ACT scores. The results of this study can be generalized to determine the affect of block and traditional scheduling and ACT scores in Alabama High Schools.
This study does not take into consideration any other factors that may contribute to ACT scores. This can include: students attention span; retention; teacher attitudes; students attitude toward scheduling; academic performance in each subject; students GPA; curriculum standards; content covered; attendance; students attitude toward learning; and students behavior, just to mention a few factors. (Lindsay, 2008) I believe all these factors play a role in academic performance at any school regardless of scheduling. The researcher will limit the focus of this study to the effects block and traditional scheduling have on ACT scores. This study will not deal with any school which uses a modified block system or any other type of scheduling other than traditional and block scheduling.
Hypothesis
Students in Alabama high schools with block scheduling will have lower ACT scores than those using traditional scheduling.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Introduction
Studies concerning block scheduling and its affect on ACT scores have been conducted in other states across the country. This literature review reveals the effect block and traditional scheduling have on ACT scores in other states. Some studies revealed significant drops in ACT scores while others revealed significant increases in ACT scores. A few studies revealed no significant increase or decrease in ACT scores as it relates to type of scheduling.
Literature Revealing Significant Drop in ACT Scores
Studies concerning this matter have been conducted in other states across the country. Iowa State University in conjunction with ACT inc.com(2002) completed a series of studies regarding the effects of the block scheduling on ACT scores in Iowa and Illinois. The findings showed block scheduling hurt ACT scores noting students in schools with block scheduling produced “markedly lower” ACT scores than students in schools with traditional scheduling. A study performed in Texas reported that with the exception of graduation rates significant difference was found for all other dependent variables to include ACT scores (McCumber, 2002). Block scheduling over traditional scheduling has been noted by parents to drop SAT scores. In 2004 a parent in Delaware wrote the following:
I live in a small beach community in Delaware. For years, our local high school was the pride of the state-top in state testing, SAT scores/college admissions, and various athletic awards. But six, years ago, our school superintendent imposed the “sentence” of 4x4 block scheduling!...We know have the lowest AP completion scores in the state, our SAT scores are falling way below the national trends, our state testing scores are falling. We have been labeled a school “at risk”. It has been 6 years of failure, in every definition of the word.
…Recently we have started another movement to rid our system of this nightmare: we provided a petition with numerous signatures, a school board member in favor of returning to the traditional strip schedule, provided a clear presentation of the downward trend in our school, and after reading your web site, I called the superintendent on many of the points you raised. We asked them to rethink the flawed scheduling and to consider returning to the traditional schedule. The vote was tied (3-3) and our very weak school board president, state the following, “As president I have to cast the deciding vote. I am voting in favor of staying with the 4x4 block, because my daughter just loves it.” When parents screamed that this is not just about her daughter, she refused to answer.
Later in 2004 with the election of two new board members they won their battle and are going back to a traditional schedule. She further tells everyone to never give up for change, especially when you know it is needed. Another parent wrote to Lindsay saying “SAT scores have fallen every year since block went into effect”. A parent from Lexington High School is quoted by Lindsay as saying in 1997 “Lexington High School posted scores well above the state average in 1992-1993, before they adopted the A/B block schedule. Since then their scored have declined”. (Lindsay, 2008)
Literature Revealing No Significant Difference in ACT Scores
Another study compiled in 2006 called the “Traditional and Block Scheduling for College Science Preparation” found block scheduling appeared to provide no advantage to students in terms of college preparation in science. (Lindsay, 2008) Yet another study “Effects of a High School Block Scheduling Program on Students” found no significant decline in ACT scores on schools with years of block scheduling, note this study held IQ constant and thus co varied (Trenta & Newman, 2002).
Literature Revealing Significant Gains in ACT Scores
Another study “The Effects of Block Scheduling on High School Academic Achievement” revealed gains in mathematics and reading scores when looking at ACT and level tests (Lewis, Dugan, Winokur & Cobb, 2005). In 1992, Parkland High School in North Carolina changed from a six-period day to a 4-block and noted SAT scores dropped the first year and did not improve (as of 1995) to the level they were before the change took place. They did note a slight increase in ACT scores. (Lindsay, 2008) Another study conducted in Tennessee revealed block scheduling attained the highest mean ACT score with traditional scheduling having a lower mean ACT score (Carter, 2003).
A study conducted in Tennessee revealed while teachers believe block scheduling adversely affects student’s achievement, no such overall affect was found in the sampling undertaken (Ford, 2001) Another study compiled in 2006 called the “Traditional and Block Scheduling for College Science Preparation” found block scheduling appeared to provide no advantage to students in terms of college preparation in science. (Lindsay, 2008) Another study conducted in Tennessee revealed block scheduling attained the highest mean ACT score with traditional scheduling having a lower mean ACT score (Carter, 2003).
Significance of Literature
The whole basis for this research is on literature read and researcher’s own experience. It provides proof other schools in other states are noticing the effect block scheduling has on ACT scores. The researcher was unable to locate any material pertaining to the effects block scheduling has on ACT scores in Alabama Schools. The literature read was significant in forming the reason why studying the effect block scheduling and traditional scheduling has on ACT scores in Alabama schools is so valuable and important. The literature further provided the basis for the hypothesis of this study.
Chapter III
Methodology
Methods Undertaken
This study is being conducted to find out the impact 4 x 4 block scheduling has on ACT scores in comparison to traditional scheduling. This study is a Quantitative study with a Quasi-experimental design. The dependent variable is ACT scores, while the treatment variables are block scheduling and traditional scheduling. The researcher will contact school counselors who have either traditional or 4 x 4 block scheduling for ACT scores. The selection of ACT scores will be random using no names. Once the data are collected and coded it will be analyzed. Results will be given in a table, a graph and explained in detail.
Research Questions
The questions this research will answer are the following:
1. How is block scheduling affecting ACT scores in Alabama schools?
2. How are traditional scheduling affecting ACT scores in Alabama schools?
3. How many schools in Alabama have block scheduling?
4. How many schools in Alabama have traditional scheduling?
5. Are there significant differences in the ACT scores of students in schools that have a 4 x 4 block scheduling vs. students’ ACT scores in traditional scheduled schools?
Population
The population of this study will consist of all 11th and 12th graders with 4 x 4 block scheduling and traditional scheduling in Alabama who have taken the ACT.
Data Collection
ACT scores of 11th and 12th graders throughout Alabama will be collected from a state web-site who have 4 x 4 block scheduling and traditional scheduling. Only quantitative data will be collected.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation used to analyze will be t-test because we have two variables. The variables are 1=ACT scores with 4 x 4 block scheduling and 2=ACT scores with traditional scheduling. SPSS software will be used to perform the t-test. The results will be given in a table, graph and explained in detail.
Data Analysis
The t-test will compare the two variables. When comparing variables, if p>.05 the null hypothesis will be accepted or if p< .05 the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. Descriptive data will also be analyzed.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
All permissions will be gained from schools or authorizing organization. No information except age and ACT score will be provided to researcher.
References
ACT examination. (2009). Wikipedia. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from http://wikipedia.com
Carter, M. (2003). Comparison of Traditional and Block Schedules on the ACT Mathematics Test and Algebra I State Examinations and on Student Perceptions. Dai-A, 63(07), 2483.
Ford, L. (2001). Determining the Educational Impact of Block Scheduling in the Jackson-Madison County Schools: An Analysis of Student Achievement Data (Tennessee). Dai-A, 62(06), 1993
Hackman, D., Curtis, C., & Brown, K. (2002, July). Block Scheduling in Schools May Impact Student Achievement/ACT Scores. Iowa State University News Service, 29-30.
Lewis, C., Dugan, J., Winokur, M., & Cobb, R. (2005). The Effects of Block Scheduling on High School Academic Achievement. Nassp Bulletin, 89(645), 72-87
Lindsay, J. (2008). The Case against Block Scheduling. In Personal. Appleton, Wisconsin. Retrieved February 9, 2009, from JeffLindsey.com Web site: http://www.jefflindsay.com/block2.shtml
McCumber, P. (2002). A Comparative Analysis of Traditional Versus Block and Accelerated Block Scheduled High Schools over and Eight-Year Period in a Large Urban School District. Dai-A, 63(02), 486.
SAT examination. (2009). Wikipedia. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from http://wikipedia.com
Trenta, L., & Newman, I. (2002). Effects of a High School Block Scheduling Program on Students: A Four-Year Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Block Scheduling on Student Outcome Variables. American Secondary Education, 31(1), 54-71.
Wednesday, April 22, 2009
The Effectiveness of Mathematics Education via Distance Learning versus Traditional Learning
The Effectiveness of Mathematics Education via Distance Learning versus Traditional Learning
in Houston County High Schools
Tyson L. McDaniel
Troy University
A Proposal Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for EDU 6691
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
In Houston County, Alabama, there are two separate school districts: Dothan City Schools and Houston County schools. The schools have too few options to accommodate the various needs of a diverse student body. While the Dothan City School system has the Dothan Technology Center to provide a learning laboratory for high school students to learn a trade, such as masonry and nursing, there is simply not enough of selection for students taking traditional courses. High school enrollments in the Houston County area are not such that would warrant taking on a greater variety of courses in the curriculum. An option available to school systems in Alabama is to provide distance learning course via the web or interactive videoconferencing through Alabama Connecting Classrooms, Educators, and Students Statewide (ACCESS) program. This option allows schools to offer many more courses ranging from the usual Algebra, Chemistry, and History, to Genetics, Web Design, and Mandarin Chinese; and it allows smaller schools access to college preparatory curriculum. It provides students wishing to take Advanced Placement (AP) courses that otherwise would have been unavailable to them.
While the programs offered to Houston County students certainly impacts the course selection available to schools, success and achievement is not inherent to ACCESS students. The ACCESS program relies on quality teaching, high student interaction, and responsibility for coursework. To accurately determine whether these courses are truly helping students gain a better understanding of the state-required curriculum, the overall effectiveness of the Distance Learning medium should be quantitatively compared to traditional, in-class methods of instruction.
Limitations of the Study
The study will be limited to Cottonwood High School and Dothan High School. Cottonwood High School is part of the Houston County School System and its total student body of over 6,000. The following was taken from the Houston County School System’s website (2009):
Houston County Schools serve approximately 6250 students in southeastern Alabama. The system consists of two K-12 schools, one K-5 school, two K-6 schools, one 6-8 school, two 7-12 schools, one 9-12 school, a Career and Technical Center that serves all 9-12 students, and one Alternative School. Houston County School system is a separate system from Dothan City School system (Dothan is the largest city in Houston County).
Dothan High School currently has 1,245 students according to the Dothan City Schools’ website (2009).
Students participating in the ACCESS program will be taking classes administered via an online learning system and/or via interactive videoconferencing.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of the study is to examine the effectiveness of Distance Learning via ACCESS as compared to the traditional math instruction by analysis of mathematics scores on the SAT-10 test.
Significance of the Study
The study will investigate the effectiveness of Distance Learning in secondary education. The researcher will determine if the ACCESS program will be an effective teaching tool for Alabama teachers. The ability to bring many programs to students whom would have not had access to otherwise is potentially a watershed moment in the Alabama educational system. Alabama achievement scores are annually ranked near the bottom of the nation in composite scoring. The significance of this study is apparent in that distance learning programs can effectively broaden Alabama student choices of course material, but it is only warranted if the programs can prove to be a positive impact on the state’s scores on national testing standards.
Definition of Terms
Advanced Placement, or AP, classes are classes that allow high school students to take coursework that is at a collegiate level and earn college credit by scoring well on a standardized examination.
Distance learning is accredited coursework that is delivered in a non-traditional method, such as online learning systems, videoconferencing, and even in older forms of correspondence.
An online learning system is vendor-specific course management software that schools or school systems license from the vendor. These online programs host individual courses and allow instructors to create a digital classroom and, by following best practices, create a virtual classroom that encourages learning and collaboration among the students.
The SAT-10, or Stanford Achievement Test, Tenth Edition, is a multiple-choice standardized test that is used by educators to determine the effectiveness of their curriculum.
Hypothesis
This study will find if students gain a greater understanding of the mathematics material covered in Algebra and Calculus and, therefore, result in an increase in SAT-10 mathematics scores through either the use of ACCESS math instruction or traditional math instruction. It is the expectation of the researcher that math scores will decrease in schools that use ACCESS math instruction.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
There are many publications that have focused on Distance Learning, but there are very limited resources available to the researcher regarding the effects of distance education of mathematics at the high school level. This literature review will provide support for the thesis by introducing the reader to research done that focuses on learning strategies, the disadvantages of types of distance learning used in Alabama, and the comparison of distance learning versus traditional learning.
Learning Online
Reviewed literature has shown several differing stances on theories, methods, and best practices of online instruction, but the one common thread that ties them all together is the learning characteristics of the student. This most basic element of a student is his or her ability to learn. This transcends the physical and the virtual and gets right to the heart of the classroom. Learning in a virtual environment presents new challenges and opportunities to educators and students alike. Offir, et al (2007) of Bar-Ilan University, Israel assert that a student’s ability to learn is affected by several variables that include “(1) learner-related variables such as the student’s level of academic ability, individual cognitive style, motivation and personality factors; and (2) context variables related to the medium in which the instructional process takes place.” These factors present themselves in both the traditional physical classroom environment as well as the distance learning classroom, but when the virtual medium of instruction is applied rather than physical, individual students may or may not be able to adapt. According to the their website (2006), the ACCESS program provides the distance learning environment to Alabama public schools through both online and interactive video conferencing media or a combination of the two. This divides the conditions of the virtual classroom into totally separate methods and must this must be heavily considered by administration.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Learning
Online courses delivered through ACCESS online are asynchronous, meaning the student is not engaged by the instructor in “real time.” Instructors will post course requisites to an online learning system which the student will access and complete his or her assigned task before a pre-assigned due date. The apparent disadvantage of asynchronous online learning is the lack of social presence that is typically associated with traditional classrooms. Reio and Crim (2006) of the University of Louisville describe learning as a “social and human activity and not purely a technological process” and that the “changes in instructional method and medium are altering the roles of instructor and learner in online learning.” Reio and Crim (2006) also address the need for research of the perception of social presence in asynchronous online learning environments by referring to another source that explains that such environments are often more “group-oriented” rather than “instructor-led”. While the schools provide facilitators and proctors to be in the labs with the students, the challenge that this environment presents to students is that of at least keeping pace with traditional-classroom students with respect to a nationally standardized examination such as the SAT-10.
Synchronous Delivery Systems
The other method of course delivery through ACCESS is Interactive Video Conferencing (IVC). This method is synchronous in nature: students are interacting with the instructor in “real-time” through video-conferencing equipment. This method provides instructors a way to actively engage their students, regardless of location, and better simulate the physical classroom environment. Although students are actively engaged by an instructor and/or a facilitator, the results of IVC classes do not always mirror those of students enrolled in comparable courses taught in the traditional manner. Offir, et al (2007) conducted research regarding student responses to IVC instruction. The study reported that 47% of interviewed students were dissatisfied with the absence of personal contact with their instructor and 18% indicated increased tension due to the inherent student-instructor disconnect of the IVC method. While IVC provides a real-time interaction with the instructor, a significant portion of the population will not get the same quality of learning as they might in a traditional classroom. Stein, et al (2005) of The Ohio State University concluded from their research that “learner-instructor dialogue and learner-learner interaction initiated by the students themselves contributed significantly with perceived knowledge gained” and that “satisfaction with learner-initiated interaction was strongly correlated with satisfaction with course structure.”
Impediments to distance learning delivery Systems
Students and instructors alike are presented with some nuances of distance learning that may impede student achievement and instructor development. Doug Valentine (2002) of the University of Oklahoma cites a “national survey of higher education faculty that there was moderately positive attitude about distance learning, but moderately negative attitudes about their own use of it.” He goes on to refer to reasons such as: worries about putting course materials into cyberspace and losing control of them, feeling of a lack of administrative support, and distance learning efforts often going unnoticed in the tenure/promotion process. These concerns reflect three basic aspects of instruction as a profession: academic integrity, support of employer, and opportunity for advancement. Since instructors are concerned with these pillars of the profession, then how are administrators expected to recruit highly qualified instructors to the distance learning arena?
Distance Learning compared to Traditional Learning
Students in the public school system in the state of Alabama are expected to meet certain criteria in order to progress in their education. Teachers and administrators challenge students to excel in their studies out of concern of the betterment of the student’s education. When the treatment of distance learning is applied to high school students, the inherent advantages and disadvantages affect each student in a unique way when compared to those students enrolled in a comparable course taught traditionally. A three-year study by Retta Sweat-Guy and Craig Wishart of Fayetteville State University in Fayetteville, North Carolina (2008) found that students enrolled in management courses, taught traditionally, consistently had more students earning acceptable grades than those in the same courses taught online. However, the study also reveals a significant correlation between final grade and instructional strategies.
Chapter III
Methodology
This research study will quantify the effectiveness of teaching mathematics to high school students via ACCESS distance learning. This research will compare the results of students who take Algebra I and AP Calculus AB to students who are taking the same courses in a traditional classroom environment. There will be six groups studied at each school: two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in the traditional classroom, two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in a web-based classroom, and two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in an interactive videoconferencing classroom. The sample groups will be of similar demographics and they will be sampled from the same schools.
Research Questions
1. Have SAT-10 scores increased or decreased in student populations that have taken Algebra I via ACCESS and is there a significant difference in the scores?
2. Have SAT-10 scores increased or decreased in student populations that have taken Calculus via ACCESS and is there a significant difference in the scores?
3. Do demographics impact the effectiveness of ACCESS classes?
4. Does the academic level of the student determine success in the distance learning environment?
Population
Students sampled for this research will be taken from Cottonwood High School in Cottonwood, AL and Dothan High School in Dothan, AL. Students from each school will be sampled based on their enrollment in either Algebra I or AP Calculus AB and then based on the medium of instruction. This will account for six groups at each school: three control groups and three experimental groups. Each group will comprise of equal number of males and females. The group populations will then be determined by selecting students based on
Instrumentation
This research will focus on student achievement in the SAT-10 standardized test. This will provide a controlled environment in which to accurately compare instructional medium with reference to student achievement.
Data Analysis
The SAT 10 scores will be analyzed using a t-test to find if there are significant differences between the scores and the different types of information delivery. Significant differences will be confirmed if p > .05. Therefore the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. If p > .05 then the null set will be accepted.
Data Collection
SAT-10 scores for the students in the research population will be obtained from the Alabama State Department of Education. Data analysis will be conducted using paired t- test in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program.
Ethical Treatment
Individual students will not be affected by the research. The only demographic information needed from students are ages, race, and gender. Students’ names or any other identification will not be used by the researcher.
References
Baruch Offir, R. B. (2007). Introverts, Extroverts, and Achievement in a Distance Learning Environment. The American Journal of Distance Education , 3-19.
Learning, A. D. (2006). Retrieved March 24, 2009, from ACCESS: http://accessdl.state.al.us/index.php
Schools, D. C. (2009). Student Enrollment. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from Dothan City Schools: http://www.dothan.k12.al.us/?DivisionID=%272953%27&ToggleSideNav=
Schools, H. C. (2009). Retrieved March 2, 2009, from Houston County Schools: http://hcboe.us/HCBOE/CentOff/index.html
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, a. J. (2005). Bridging the Transactional Distance Gap in Online Learning Environments. The American Journal of Distance Education , 105-118.
Thomas Reio, J., & Crim, S. J. (2006, February 22-26). The Emergence of Social Presence as an Overlooked Factor in Asynchronous Online Learning. Paper presented at the Academy of Human Resource Development International Conference (AHRD) . Columbus, Ohio, USA.
Valentine, D. (2002). Distance Learning: Promises, Problems, and Possibilities. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration .
Wishart, R. S.-G. (2008). Proceedings of all InSITE Conferences. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Informing Science Institute: http://proceedings.informingscience.org/InSITE2008/IISITv5p149-163Sweat430.pdf
in Houston County High Schools
Tyson L. McDaniel
Troy University
A Proposal Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for EDU 6691
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
In Houston County, Alabama, there are two separate school districts: Dothan City Schools and Houston County schools. The schools have too few options to accommodate the various needs of a diverse student body. While the Dothan City School system has the Dothan Technology Center to provide a learning laboratory for high school students to learn a trade, such as masonry and nursing, there is simply not enough of selection for students taking traditional courses. High school enrollments in the Houston County area are not such that would warrant taking on a greater variety of courses in the curriculum. An option available to school systems in Alabama is to provide distance learning course via the web or interactive videoconferencing through Alabama Connecting Classrooms, Educators, and Students Statewide (ACCESS) program. This option allows schools to offer many more courses ranging from the usual Algebra, Chemistry, and History, to Genetics, Web Design, and Mandarin Chinese; and it allows smaller schools access to college preparatory curriculum. It provides students wishing to take Advanced Placement (AP) courses that otherwise would have been unavailable to them.
While the programs offered to Houston County students certainly impacts the course selection available to schools, success and achievement is not inherent to ACCESS students. The ACCESS program relies on quality teaching, high student interaction, and responsibility for coursework. To accurately determine whether these courses are truly helping students gain a better understanding of the state-required curriculum, the overall effectiveness of the Distance Learning medium should be quantitatively compared to traditional, in-class methods of instruction.
Limitations of the Study
The study will be limited to Cottonwood High School and Dothan High School. Cottonwood High School is part of the Houston County School System and its total student body of over 6,000. The following was taken from the Houston County School System’s website (2009):
Houston County Schools serve approximately 6250 students in southeastern Alabama. The system consists of two K-12 schools, one K-5 school, two K-6 schools, one 6-8 school, two 7-12 schools, one 9-12 school, a Career and Technical Center that serves all 9-12 students, and one Alternative School. Houston County School system is a separate system from Dothan City School system (Dothan is the largest city in Houston County).
Dothan High School currently has 1,245 students according to the Dothan City Schools’ website (2009).
Students participating in the ACCESS program will be taking classes administered via an online learning system and/or via interactive videoconferencing.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of the study is to examine the effectiveness of Distance Learning via ACCESS as compared to the traditional math instruction by analysis of mathematics scores on the SAT-10 test.
Significance of the Study
The study will investigate the effectiveness of Distance Learning in secondary education. The researcher will determine if the ACCESS program will be an effective teaching tool for Alabama teachers. The ability to bring many programs to students whom would have not had access to otherwise is potentially a watershed moment in the Alabama educational system. Alabama achievement scores are annually ranked near the bottom of the nation in composite scoring. The significance of this study is apparent in that distance learning programs can effectively broaden Alabama student choices of course material, but it is only warranted if the programs can prove to be a positive impact on the state’s scores on national testing standards.
Definition of Terms
Advanced Placement, or AP, classes are classes that allow high school students to take coursework that is at a collegiate level and earn college credit by scoring well on a standardized examination.
Distance learning is accredited coursework that is delivered in a non-traditional method, such as online learning systems, videoconferencing, and even in older forms of correspondence.
An online learning system is vendor-specific course management software that schools or school systems license from the vendor. These online programs host individual courses and allow instructors to create a digital classroom and, by following best practices, create a virtual classroom that encourages learning and collaboration among the students.
The SAT-10, or Stanford Achievement Test, Tenth Edition, is a multiple-choice standardized test that is used by educators to determine the effectiveness of their curriculum.
Hypothesis
This study will find if students gain a greater understanding of the mathematics material covered in Algebra and Calculus and, therefore, result in an increase in SAT-10 mathematics scores through either the use of ACCESS math instruction or traditional math instruction. It is the expectation of the researcher that math scores will decrease in schools that use ACCESS math instruction.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
There are many publications that have focused on Distance Learning, but there are very limited resources available to the researcher regarding the effects of distance education of mathematics at the high school level. This literature review will provide support for the thesis by introducing the reader to research done that focuses on learning strategies, the disadvantages of types of distance learning used in Alabama, and the comparison of distance learning versus traditional learning.
Learning Online
Reviewed literature has shown several differing stances on theories, methods, and best practices of online instruction, but the one common thread that ties them all together is the learning characteristics of the student. This most basic element of a student is his or her ability to learn. This transcends the physical and the virtual and gets right to the heart of the classroom. Learning in a virtual environment presents new challenges and opportunities to educators and students alike. Offir, et al (2007) of Bar-Ilan University, Israel assert that a student’s ability to learn is affected by several variables that include “(1) learner-related variables such as the student’s level of academic ability, individual cognitive style, motivation and personality factors; and (2) context variables related to the medium in which the instructional process takes place.” These factors present themselves in both the traditional physical classroom environment as well as the distance learning classroom, but when the virtual medium of instruction is applied rather than physical, individual students may or may not be able to adapt. According to the their website (2006), the ACCESS program provides the distance learning environment to Alabama public schools through both online and interactive video conferencing media or a combination of the two. This divides the conditions of the virtual classroom into totally separate methods and must this must be heavily considered by administration.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Learning
Online courses delivered through ACCESS online are asynchronous, meaning the student is not engaged by the instructor in “real time.” Instructors will post course requisites to an online learning system which the student will access and complete his or her assigned task before a pre-assigned due date. The apparent disadvantage of asynchronous online learning is the lack of social presence that is typically associated with traditional classrooms. Reio and Crim (2006) of the University of Louisville describe learning as a “social and human activity and not purely a technological process” and that the “changes in instructional method and medium are altering the roles of instructor and learner in online learning.” Reio and Crim (2006) also address the need for research of the perception of social presence in asynchronous online learning environments by referring to another source that explains that such environments are often more “group-oriented” rather than “instructor-led”. While the schools provide facilitators and proctors to be in the labs with the students, the challenge that this environment presents to students is that of at least keeping pace with traditional-classroom students with respect to a nationally standardized examination such as the SAT-10.
Synchronous Delivery Systems
The other method of course delivery through ACCESS is Interactive Video Conferencing (IVC). This method is synchronous in nature: students are interacting with the instructor in “real-time” through video-conferencing equipment. This method provides instructors a way to actively engage their students, regardless of location, and better simulate the physical classroom environment. Although students are actively engaged by an instructor and/or a facilitator, the results of IVC classes do not always mirror those of students enrolled in comparable courses taught in the traditional manner. Offir, et al (2007) conducted research regarding student responses to IVC instruction. The study reported that 47% of interviewed students were dissatisfied with the absence of personal contact with their instructor and 18% indicated increased tension due to the inherent student-instructor disconnect of the IVC method. While IVC provides a real-time interaction with the instructor, a significant portion of the population will not get the same quality of learning as they might in a traditional classroom. Stein, et al (2005) of The Ohio State University concluded from their research that “learner-instructor dialogue and learner-learner interaction initiated by the students themselves contributed significantly with perceived knowledge gained” and that “satisfaction with learner-initiated interaction was strongly correlated with satisfaction with course structure.”
Impediments to distance learning delivery Systems
Students and instructors alike are presented with some nuances of distance learning that may impede student achievement and instructor development. Doug Valentine (2002) of the University of Oklahoma cites a “national survey of higher education faculty that there was moderately positive attitude about distance learning, but moderately negative attitudes about their own use of it.” He goes on to refer to reasons such as: worries about putting course materials into cyberspace and losing control of them, feeling of a lack of administrative support, and distance learning efforts often going unnoticed in the tenure/promotion process. These concerns reflect three basic aspects of instruction as a profession: academic integrity, support of employer, and opportunity for advancement. Since instructors are concerned with these pillars of the profession, then how are administrators expected to recruit highly qualified instructors to the distance learning arena?
Distance Learning compared to Traditional Learning
Students in the public school system in the state of Alabama are expected to meet certain criteria in order to progress in their education. Teachers and administrators challenge students to excel in their studies out of concern of the betterment of the student’s education. When the treatment of distance learning is applied to high school students, the inherent advantages and disadvantages affect each student in a unique way when compared to those students enrolled in a comparable course taught traditionally. A three-year study by Retta Sweat-Guy and Craig Wishart of Fayetteville State University in Fayetteville, North Carolina (2008) found that students enrolled in management courses, taught traditionally, consistently had more students earning acceptable grades than those in the same courses taught online. However, the study also reveals a significant correlation between final grade and instructional strategies.
Chapter III
Methodology
This research study will quantify the effectiveness of teaching mathematics to high school students via ACCESS distance learning. This research will compare the results of students who take Algebra I and AP Calculus AB to students who are taking the same courses in a traditional classroom environment. There will be six groups studied at each school: two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in the traditional classroom, two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in a web-based classroom, and two groups that take Algebra I or AP Calculus in an interactive videoconferencing classroom. The sample groups will be of similar demographics and they will be sampled from the same schools.
Research Questions
1. Have SAT-10 scores increased or decreased in student populations that have taken Algebra I via ACCESS and is there a significant difference in the scores?
2. Have SAT-10 scores increased or decreased in student populations that have taken Calculus via ACCESS and is there a significant difference in the scores?
3. Do demographics impact the effectiveness of ACCESS classes?
4. Does the academic level of the student determine success in the distance learning environment?
Population
Students sampled for this research will be taken from Cottonwood High School in Cottonwood, AL and Dothan High School in Dothan, AL. Students from each school will be sampled based on their enrollment in either Algebra I or AP Calculus AB and then based on the medium of instruction. This will account for six groups at each school: three control groups and three experimental groups. Each group will comprise of equal number of males and females. The group populations will then be determined by selecting students based on
Instrumentation
This research will focus on student achievement in the SAT-10 standardized test. This will provide a controlled environment in which to accurately compare instructional medium with reference to student achievement.
Data Analysis
The SAT 10 scores will be analyzed using a t-test to find if there are significant differences between the scores and the different types of information delivery. Significant differences will be confirmed if p > .05. Therefore the alternative hypothesis will be accepted. If p > .05 then the null set will be accepted.
Data Collection
SAT-10 scores for the students in the research population will be obtained from the Alabama State Department of Education. Data analysis will be conducted using paired t- test in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) computer program.
Ethical Treatment
Individual students will not be affected by the research. The only demographic information needed from students are ages, race, and gender. Students’ names or any other identification will not be used by the researcher.
References
Baruch Offir, R. B. (2007). Introverts, Extroverts, and Achievement in a Distance Learning Environment. The American Journal of Distance Education , 3-19.
Learning, A. D. (2006). Retrieved March 24, 2009, from ACCESS: http://accessdl.state.al.us/index.php
Schools, D. C. (2009). Student Enrollment. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from Dothan City Schools: http://www.dothan.k12.al.us/?DivisionID=%272953%27&ToggleSideNav=
Schools, H. C. (2009). Retrieved March 2, 2009, from Houston County Schools: http://hcboe.us/HCBOE/CentOff/index.html
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, a. J. (2005). Bridging the Transactional Distance Gap in Online Learning Environments. The American Journal of Distance Education , 105-118.
Thomas Reio, J., & Crim, S. J. (2006, February 22-26). The Emergence of Social Presence as an Overlooked Factor in Asynchronous Online Learning. Paper presented at the Academy of Human Resource Development International Conference (AHRD) . Columbus, Ohio, USA.
Valentine, D. (2002). Distance Learning: Promises, Problems, and Possibilities. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration .
Wishart, R. S.-G. (2008). Proceedings of all InSITE Conferences. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Informing Science Institute: http://proceedings.informingscience.org/InSITE2008/IISITv5p149-163Sweat430.pdf
A Comparison Study of the Modified Year-Round Schedule Model with that of the
A Comparison Study of the Modified Year-Round Schedule Model with that of the
Traditional Year Schedule
Model on Graduation Exam Scores in Alabama Schools.
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Kimberly R. Sewell
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
In an era of change, many school systems are adjusting their normal routines, strategies, and curriculum in an effort to improve education. The new emphasis on the Graduation Exam and its effects on graduation rates in Alabama have led many school systems to debate whether a change from the traditional year schedule to the modified year-round schedule would increase achievement on graduation scores. Students must attend school for a certain amount of days in order to receive credit for each class that they take. Both the traditional and modified year school schedules meet the requirements for school days. The difference between the two schedules has to do with the breaks that students have during the year. Those in favor of the traditional school year feel that a full three month break for summer is a necessary break for students and teachers. Those against this schedule believe that it is “out dated” and “encourages students to forget knowledge that they learned the previous year”. (123help) Those in favor of the modified year schedule believe that those breaks are necessary, but that they should be spaced out so that no student is away from the classroom too long. Even though there seem to be pros and cons for both schedules, the real question should be whether or not a change in school year schedules would increase test scores on the graduation exam.
Limitations
High schools used in the study will be limited to public schools in Alabama. The researcher will randomly select one 1A school, one 2A school, one 3A school, one 4A school, one 5A school, and one 6A school that are on traditional schedules. The Researcher will randomly select one 1A school, one 2A school, one 3A school, one 4A school, one 5A school, and one 6A school that is on the modified year-round schedule. From these schools, the researcher will sample all 10th Grade scores for the math, reading, science, social studies, and language graduation exams taken in the spring. The Researcher will make sure that each school in the study is using the Block Schedule during the day so that each school is similar enough to be compared.
Assumptions
The researcher assumes that there is at least one school in each classification that is using the traditional schedule and at least five one school in each classification that is using a modified schedule. The researcher can also assume that the Graduation exam will continue to be given in the spring.
Purpose of the study:
The purpose of the study is to determine whether a change in schedule to either traditional year or modified year could increase achievement on the graduation exams for Alabama high schools. State, District, and School System Administrators need to understand which schedule could increase achievement for the graduation exam so that they can decide how to set up their schedules for the upcoming year. Knowledge of how other school systems have implemented such schedules could be very beneficial in planning the new school year. Parents and students can become more aware of the positive aspects of a change in schedule so that they will be more willing to accept it.
Significance of the Study
The terms traditional schedule and modified year-round schedule have been used many times in the past several years. In education, we are always trying to find better ways of doing things in order to be more effective, and help our students achieve more. The study can help to answer the questions that administrators, teachers, parents, and students have about the different schedules. There are a few studies that discuss the difference between the two schedules, but there has not been a study conducted in Alabama public schools on the subject or a study dealing with achievement on Graduation exams. The results from this study could be very helpful to Alabama public schools for the very reason that it has not been studied before.
Definition of Terms
1A – 6A Schools – The Alabama High School Athletic Association has categorized schools into one of six classifications due to their enrollment of students. 1A schools have from 0-147 students. 2A schools have from 148-212 students. 3A schools have from 213-287 students. 4A schools have from 288-398 students. 5A schools have from 399-699 students. 6A schools have from 700-1751 students.
Graduation Exam – A series of 5 standardized assessments that cover Reading, Language, Math, Social Studies, and Biology. These assessments are state-mandated and produced. They are 100% multiple-choice tests. Students take these tests in very strict environments to ensure validity of the test scores. In order to receive a regular diploma from an Alabama High School, students must pass all five assessments.
Modified Schedule – A school schedule where the summer vacation is distributed throughout the school year. Students attend school for eight weeks and are off for two weeks. The summer vacation is about nine weeks long. Schedules may vary from school district to school district.
Traditional Schedule –Students go to school for 9 months and then have a 3-month summer Vacation. It was originally developed to meet the needs of farming, which normally took place during the three months of summer.
Block Schedule – Students take four classes a semester. These four classes last for 96 minutes a piece. At the end of the semester, the students take four more classes that are 96 minutes each. The block schedule allows students to take eight classes a year.
Semester – A semester lasts for eighteen weeks. There are two semesters in one school year.
Hypothesis
There will not be a significant difference in achievement on graduation exam scores for Alabama high schools in regard to traditional schedules versus those on modified schedules. Schools will prove that the schedule has nothing to do with student achievement.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Articles that discuss Year Round School
“School Calendars”
At one time, the normal school calendar consisted of nine months of class that were followed by three months of summer vacation. These three months were set aside so that children could help harvest crops with their parents. In today’s society, most parents both work jobs away from home. Farming is no longer the main career for most families; therefore, there is no longer a need for the children to help harvest. In order to meet new state standards, many schools have altered their “instructional strategies”. Many different strategies have been used, but they all center on the same idea that the students need more time in the classroom. The article suggests that changing the school calendar can be a useful strategy, as long as it is not entered into lightly
(Metzker, 2002).
“Quality Schools and the Myth of the Nine-Month School Year”
Time seems to be the driving force behind education. State administrators determine the number of days that students should be in public schools. Local administrators determine how time will be arranged during the school day. Teachers match the amount of time they are given with the standards that they must meet. After research on extended sessions and year round school surfaced, many superintendents began adopting such strategies. “In 1991, Midwestern community schools proposed custom calendar that would modify the traditional school year” (Duglosh, 1994). These schools spent a great amount of time communicating the changes that would take place with the people in the community. It was discovered that a great deal of communication is a great way to begin designing and implementing new strategies (Duglosh, 1994).
“A Modified School Year: Perspectives from the Early Years”
Over the past several years, there has been a “growing interest” in wanting to modify the school calendar. One approach suggests a “balanced calendar”. This plan involves spending 45 days in school with 10 days off. These days would be followed by a four to five week summer vacation. There are many versions of this “balanced calendar”. Those in favor of such changes suggest that a modified schedule will improve student attendance, student’s attitudes about school, and teacher attitudes. Research has shown that there may be a significant change in achievement due to a change in schedule. However, research also shows that a change in instruction and curriculum could also lead to a change in achievement (Winter, 2005).
“Professional Development Increasing Student Achievement Year-Round Education K-12: Why Can’t We Get It Right?”
The traditional calendar is set up so that the first and second grading periods occur before the Winter Break. In January, the third grading period begins. The students have Spring Break in between the third and fourth grading periods. At the end of the fourth grading period, the students have Summer Vacation. An alternate schedule is known as the “45-15/Single Track” schedule. This schedule consists of a fifteen day break between the first, second, third, and fourth grading periods. The summer vacation that occurs after the fourth grading period has a longer amount of time off. The article discusses the importance of professional development in school systems that are making the switch from traditional schedule to the 45-15/single track. Research proves that in order for the change to be most effective, teachers should participate in professional development throughout the entire first year so that they can discuss any problems they are having and learn how to deal with them. One example of an effective professional development strategy is known as “POTENT”. This strategy encourages teachers and administrators to fully grasp the concepts of “purpose, outcomes, tools, evaluations, numbers, and timelines associated with the new schedule change. Hopefully, such strategies will prove to be effective in the transition from traditional to year round schedules (Speck, 2002).
Articles that show increases in achievement due to Year Round School
“Making the Most of Time”
In Toronto, Ontario, public school systems are utilizing the “balanced calendar” schedule. The students continue to have school holidays and vacations. The difference is the fact that the holidays are spread evenly throughout the year. During the breaks, intercessions are provided for those students that need remediation in the subject. The change in schedules has “minimized summer learning loss and offers remediation to struggling students while shattering the boredom of summer. It puts time on the side of students” (Hamilton, et al 2006).
“Instructional Review Time in Year Round and Traditional Calendar Schools”
The average of public school students found in year round classrooms has grown drastically over the past twenty years. Research has proven that there are many benefits to changing from the traditional calendar to the year round calendar. One benefit is that there is less of a learning loss over the summer vacation. “The customary long summer vacation disrupts the continuity of instruction” (Varner, 2003). Another benefit shows that teachers are able to pace themselves better during year-round schedules. The material that is covered is more consistent and meets more of the demands set forth by the state standards. A third benefit to year round schedules is that less times has to be spend on reviewing material from the previous year because the gap between classes is smaller. Therefore, more time can be placed on the learning the material at hand rather than working on material that should have already been mastered (Varner, 2003).
“Student Segregation and Achievement Tracking in Year-Round Schools”
In California, approximately twenty-five percent of students are enrolled in schools that have non-traditional schedules. Many of the schools participate in the 60/20 year round model. The students go to school for sixty days and then are off for twenty days. Also, these schools are scheduled on a multitrack system which allows for four different track schedules for students. This allows one-fourth of the students are on vacation during any given month. Families may prefer to have all of their children on the same track. Administrators look into the students placed into each track so that the students and their families will be happy with their tracks. This article did not prove that achievement increased, but showed that the students and families were much happier under this multitrack system (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2005).
“Making Year-Round Education Work in Your District: A Nationally Recognized Single Track High School Model.”
The traditional school schedule of starting school in September and ending it in June is no longer the normal schedule for most public schools. Year round schedules have been proven to provide extra time to meet the standards set forth by state education departments. Many schools in Virginia have adopted year round schedules. These new schedules have proven to “increase attendance, decrease drop-out rates, and increase achievement scores. Also, these year round schedules are keeping students focused on their education rather than working industrial jobs during the long summer vacation. In these Virginia schools, the year round schedule was first starting on a voluntary manner so that students, teachers, and parents could get used to the idea and the new schedule. After doing this, the schools mandated the new schedule. All involved appreciated the chance to get used to the change first. This also helped to make the transition easier (Bradford, J. 1993).
Articles that show no significant difference in achievement due to Year Round School
“Year Round Schools May Not Be the Answer”
There are many different types of year round schedules available. The most important question to ask is simply “Do year-round schools improve education” (Raspberry, 1994)? A majority of the research on year round schools shows that there is no significant difference in achievement of student in year round schools versus those in traditional schedules. Many feel that changing the days of the year that students attend school does not address the real problems that are hindering education today. These problems include a lack of parental involvement and a need for new instruction methods. Many of those in favor of year round schedules believe that frequent breaks allow the students to retain more. “Psychologists believe this is an unproven and illogical claim” (Raspberry, 1994). The truth is that there is no significant amount of evidence that proves year round school to increase achievement (Raspberry, 1994).
“The Effect of Year Round School on Teacher Attendance.”
Teacher attendance has been found to have a direct correlation with student achievement. The more days that a teacher is present, the more work can be accomplished. Questions have begun to surface as to whether or not year round school would have an effect on teacher attendance. Research was conducted on three year round schools in order to determine whether year round school would have an effect on teacher attendance. After the experiment was conducted, the research showed that there was no significant difference in the amount of days that teachers are absent. Therefore, year round school has no affect on teacher attendance and achievement (Kocek, 1996).
Chapter III
Methodology
The focus of this study will be to determine whether the type of school schedule, traditional or modified year round, can directly affect scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. Public high schools in Alabama will be randomly chosen from the different AHSAA categories. AHSGE scores from the 1A-6A high schools on the traditional scheduled will be compared with the AHSGE scores from the 1A-6A high schools on the modified year round schedule. The scores will come from 10th Grade students taking the Spring Semester 2009 AHSGE. Scores from all five sections of the exam will be used in the study.
Research Questions
1. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
2. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by gender that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
3. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by race that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
4. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by socioeconomic status that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
Population
The study will include 50 tenth grade students from each school involved in the study. They will be randomly selected. The students will take a pre-test at the beginning of the year. The researcher will check for outliers and omit them to keep the data from skewing.
Instrumentation
For this study, a paired-sample t-test will be used in order to compare the AHSGE scores for students on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules. For data analysis, the study will use SPSS, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, in order to compare the mean scores for the two groups of 10th Grade students.
Data Collection
The data collected will be AHSGE scores for 10th Graders at the involved public schools in Alabama. A pre-test will be given at the beginning of the year to increase the validity of the study by showing the intelligence levels of all the students so that students of equal intelligence can be chosen for the study. The Spring Semester 2009 AHSGE will be the post-test for the study. The means for this exam will be collected.
Data Analysis
A paired-sample t-test will be used to determine whether a significant difference exists between the AHSGE scores of 10th grade students on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
All human subjects involved will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and respect. All aspects of the study will be explained to all students, parents, and administrators involved. Parents will participate in an open forum at the beginning of the study in order to explain the goals of the study, as well as to answer any questions they may have. A parent release form will be mandatory for any student that is chosen to participate. If any aspect of the study presents a problem for a student or parent, they will be allowed to stop participation in the study without any repercussions.
Traditional Year Schedule
Model on Graduation Exam Scores in Alabama Schools.
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Kimberly R. Sewell
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
In an era of change, many school systems are adjusting their normal routines, strategies, and curriculum in an effort to improve education. The new emphasis on the Graduation Exam and its effects on graduation rates in Alabama have led many school systems to debate whether a change from the traditional year schedule to the modified year-round schedule would increase achievement on graduation scores. Students must attend school for a certain amount of days in order to receive credit for each class that they take. Both the traditional and modified year school schedules meet the requirements for school days. The difference between the two schedules has to do with the breaks that students have during the year. Those in favor of the traditional school year feel that a full three month break for summer is a necessary break for students and teachers. Those against this schedule believe that it is “out dated” and “encourages students to forget knowledge that they learned the previous year”. (123help) Those in favor of the modified year schedule believe that those breaks are necessary, but that they should be spaced out so that no student is away from the classroom too long. Even though there seem to be pros and cons for both schedules, the real question should be whether or not a change in school year schedules would increase test scores on the graduation exam.
Limitations
High schools used in the study will be limited to public schools in Alabama. The researcher will randomly select one 1A school, one 2A school, one 3A school, one 4A school, one 5A school, and one 6A school that are on traditional schedules. The Researcher will randomly select one 1A school, one 2A school, one 3A school, one 4A school, one 5A school, and one 6A school that is on the modified year-round schedule. From these schools, the researcher will sample all 10th Grade scores for the math, reading, science, social studies, and language graduation exams taken in the spring. The Researcher will make sure that each school in the study is using the Block Schedule during the day so that each school is similar enough to be compared.
Assumptions
The researcher assumes that there is at least one school in each classification that is using the traditional schedule and at least five one school in each classification that is using a modified schedule. The researcher can also assume that the Graduation exam will continue to be given in the spring.
Purpose of the study:
The purpose of the study is to determine whether a change in schedule to either traditional year or modified year could increase achievement on the graduation exams for Alabama high schools. State, District, and School System Administrators need to understand which schedule could increase achievement for the graduation exam so that they can decide how to set up their schedules for the upcoming year. Knowledge of how other school systems have implemented such schedules could be very beneficial in planning the new school year. Parents and students can become more aware of the positive aspects of a change in schedule so that they will be more willing to accept it.
Significance of the Study
The terms traditional schedule and modified year-round schedule have been used many times in the past several years. In education, we are always trying to find better ways of doing things in order to be more effective, and help our students achieve more. The study can help to answer the questions that administrators, teachers, parents, and students have about the different schedules. There are a few studies that discuss the difference between the two schedules, but there has not been a study conducted in Alabama public schools on the subject or a study dealing with achievement on Graduation exams. The results from this study could be very helpful to Alabama public schools for the very reason that it has not been studied before.
Definition of Terms
1A – 6A Schools – The Alabama High School Athletic Association has categorized schools into one of six classifications due to their enrollment of students. 1A schools have from 0-147 students. 2A schools have from 148-212 students. 3A schools have from 213-287 students. 4A schools have from 288-398 students. 5A schools have from 399-699 students. 6A schools have from 700-1751 students.
Graduation Exam – A series of 5 standardized assessments that cover Reading, Language, Math, Social Studies, and Biology. These assessments are state-mandated and produced. They are 100% multiple-choice tests. Students take these tests in very strict environments to ensure validity of the test scores. In order to receive a regular diploma from an Alabama High School, students must pass all five assessments.
Modified Schedule – A school schedule where the summer vacation is distributed throughout the school year. Students attend school for eight weeks and are off for two weeks. The summer vacation is about nine weeks long. Schedules may vary from school district to school district.
Traditional Schedule –Students go to school for 9 months and then have a 3-month summer Vacation. It was originally developed to meet the needs of farming, which normally took place during the three months of summer.
Block Schedule – Students take four classes a semester. These four classes last for 96 minutes a piece. At the end of the semester, the students take four more classes that are 96 minutes each. The block schedule allows students to take eight classes a year.
Semester – A semester lasts for eighteen weeks. There are two semesters in one school year.
Hypothesis
There will not be a significant difference in achievement on graduation exam scores for Alabama high schools in regard to traditional schedules versus those on modified schedules. Schools will prove that the schedule has nothing to do with student achievement.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Articles that discuss Year Round School
“School Calendars”
At one time, the normal school calendar consisted of nine months of class that were followed by three months of summer vacation. These three months were set aside so that children could help harvest crops with their parents. In today’s society, most parents both work jobs away from home. Farming is no longer the main career for most families; therefore, there is no longer a need for the children to help harvest. In order to meet new state standards, many schools have altered their “instructional strategies”. Many different strategies have been used, but they all center on the same idea that the students need more time in the classroom. The article suggests that changing the school calendar can be a useful strategy, as long as it is not entered into lightly
(Metzker, 2002).
“Quality Schools and the Myth of the Nine-Month School Year”
Time seems to be the driving force behind education. State administrators determine the number of days that students should be in public schools. Local administrators determine how time will be arranged during the school day. Teachers match the amount of time they are given with the standards that they must meet. After research on extended sessions and year round school surfaced, many superintendents began adopting such strategies. “In 1991, Midwestern community schools proposed custom calendar that would modify the traditional school year” (Duglosh, 1994). These schools spent a great amount of time communicating the changes that would take place with the people in the community. It was discovered that a great deal of communication is a great way to begin designing and implementing new strategies (Duglosh, 1994).
“A Modified School Year: Perspectives from the Early Years”
Over the past several years, there has been a “growing interest” in wanting to modify the school calendar. One approach suggests a “balanced calendar”. This plan involves spending 45 days in school with 10 days off. These days would be followed by a four to five week summer vacation. There are many versions of this “balanced calendar”. Those in favor of such changes suggest that a modified schedule will improve student attendance, student’s attitudes about school, and teacher attitudes. Research has shown that there may be a significant change in achievement due to a change in schedule. However, research also shows that a change in instruction and curriculum could also lead to a change in achievement (Winter, 2005).
“Professional Development Increasing Student Achievement Year-Round Education K-12: Why Can’t We Get It Right?”
The traditional calendar is set up so that the first and second grading periods occur before the Winter Break. In January, the third grading period begins. The students have Spring Break in between the third and fourth grading periods. At the end of the fourth grading period, the students have Summer Vacation. An alternate schedule is known as the “45-15/Single Track” schedule. This schedule consists of a fifteen day break between the first, second, third, and fourth grading periods. The summer vacation that occurs after the fourth grading period has a longer amount of time off. The article discusses the importance of professional development in school systems that are making the switch from traditional schedule to the 45-15/single track. Research proves that in order for the change to be most effective, teachers should participate in professional development throughout the entire first year so that they can discuss any problems they are having and learn how to deal with them. One example of an effective professional development strategy is known as “POTENT”. This strategy encourages teachers and administrators to fully grasp the concepts of “purpose, outcomes, tools, evaluations, numbers, and timelines associated with the new schedule change. Hopefully, such strategies will prove to be effective in the transition from traditional to year round schedules (Speck, 2002).
Articles that show increases in achievement due to Year Round School
“Making the Most of Time”
In Toronto, Ontario, public school systems are utilizing the “balanced calendar” schedule. The students continue to have school holidays and vacations. The difference is the fact that the holidays are spread evenly throughout the year. During the breaks, intercessions are provided for those students that need remediation in the subject. The change in schedules has “minimized summer learning loss and offers remediation to struggling students while shattering the boredom of summer. It puts time on the side of students” (Hamilton, et al 2006).
“Instructional Review Time in Year Round and Traditional Calendar Schools”
The average of public school students found in year round classrooms has grown drastically over the past twenty years. Research has proven that there are many benefits to changing from the traditional calendar to the year round calendar. One benefit is that there is less of a learning loss over the summer vacation. “The customary long summer vacation disrupts the continuity of instruction” (Varner, 2003). Another benefit shows that teachers are able to pace themselves better during year-round schedules. The material that is covered is more consistent and meets more of the demands set forth by the state standards. A third benefit to year round schedules is that less times has to be spend on reviewing material from the previous year because the gap between classes is smaller. Therefore, more time can be placed on the learning the material at hand rather than working on material that should have already been mastered (Varner, 2003).
“Student Segregation and Achievement Tracking in Year-Round Schools”
In California, approximately twenty-five percent of students are enrolled in schools that have non-traditional schedules. Many of the schools participate in the 60/20 year round model. The students go to school for sixty days and then are off for twenty days. Also, these schools are scheduled on a multitrack system which allows for four different track schedules for students. This allows one-fourth of the students are on vacation during any given month. Families may prefer to have all of their children on the same track. Administrators look into the students placed into each track so that the students and their families will be happy with their tracks. This article did not prove that achievement increased, but showed that the students and families were much happier under this multitrack system (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2005).
“Making Year-Round Education Work in Your District: A Nationally Recognized Single Track High School Model.”
The traditional school schedule of starting school in September and ending it in June is no longer the normal schedule for most public schools. Year round schedules have been proven to provide extra time to meet the standards set forth by state education departments. Many schools in Virginia have adopted year round schedules. These new schedules have proven to “increase attendance, decrease drop-out rates, and increase achievement scores. Also, these year round schedules are keeping students focused on their education rather than working industrial jobs during the long summer vacation. In these Virginia schools, the year round schedule was first starting on a voluntary manner so that students, teachers, and parents could get used to the idea and the new schedule. After doing this, the schools mandated the new schedule. All involved appreciated the chance to get used to the change first. This also helped to make the transition easier (Bradford, J. 1993).
Articles that show no significant difference in achievement due to Year Round School
“Year Round Schools May Not Be the Answer”
There are many different types of year round schedules available. The most important question to ask is simply “Do year-round schools improve education” (Raspberry, 1994)? A majority of the research on year round schools shows that there is no significant difference in achievement of student in year round schools versus those in traditional schedules. Many feel that changing the days of the year that students attend school does not address the real problems that are hindering education today. These problems include a lack of parental involvement and a need for new instruction methods. Many of those in favor of year round schedules believe that frequent breaks allow the students to retain more. “Psychologists believe this is an unproven and illogical claim” (Raspberry, 1994). The truth is that there is no significant amount of evidence that proves year round school to increase achievement (Raspberry, 1994).
“The Effect of Year Round School on Teacher Attendance.”
Teacher attendance has been found to have a direct correlation with student achievement. The more days that a teacher is present, the more work can be accomplished. Questions have begun to surface as to whether or not year round school would have an effect on teacher attendance. Research was conducted on three year round schools in order to determine whether year round school would have an effect on teacher attendance. After the experiment was conducted, the research showed that there was no significant difference in the amount of days that teachers are absent. Therefore, year round school has no affect on teacher attendance and achievement (Kocek, 1996).
Chapter III
Methodology
The focus of this study will be to determine whether the type of school schedule, traditional or modified year round, can directly affect scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. Public high schools in Alabama will be randomly chosen from the different AHSAA categories. AHSGE scores from the 1A-6A high schools on the traditional scheduled will be compared with the AHSGE scores from the 1A-6A high schools on the modified year round schedule. The scores will come from 10th Grade students taking the Spring Semester 2009 AHSGE. Scores from all five sections of the exam will be used in the study.
Research Questions
1. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
2. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by gender that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
3. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by race that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
4. Is there a significant difference between the AHSGE scores of 10th Grade students by socioeconomic status that are on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules?
Population
The study will include 50 tenth grade students from each school involved in the study. They will be randomly selected. The students will take a pre-test at the beginning of the year. The researcher will check for outliers and omit them to keep the data from skewing.
Instrumentation
For this study, a paired-sample t-test will be used in order to compare the AHSGE scores for students on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules. For data analysis, the study will use SPSS, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, in order to compare the mean scores for the two groups of 10th Grade students.
Data Collection
The data collected will be AHSGE scores for 10th Graders at the involved public schools in Alabama. A pre-test will be given at the beginning of the year to increase the validity of the study by showing the intelligence levels of all the students so that students of equal intelligence can be chosen for the study. The Spring Semester 2009 AHSGE will be the post-test for the study. The means for this exam will be collected.
Data Analysis
A paired-sample t-test will be used to determine whether a significant difference exists between the AHSGE scores of 10th grade students on traditional schedules versus those on modified year round schedules.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
All human subjects involved will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and respect. All aspects of the study will be explained to all students, parents, and administrators involved. Parents will participate in an open forum at the beginning of the study in order to explain the goals of the study, as well as to answer any questions they may have. A parent release form will be mandatory for any student that is chosen to participate. If any aspect of the study presents a problem for a student or parent, they will be allowed to stop participation in the study without any repercussions.
Tuesday, April 21, 2009
A Houston County Alabama Elementary School
A Houston County Alabama Elementary School
Study of the Relationship
Between Retention and SAT-10 Math Scores
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Natalie N. McCord
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the problem
One of many problems in Houston County School is retention as it relates to Stanford Achievement Test, Version 10 math scores. This is a study of Houston County Schools in Alabama in which students are retained according to the main academic subjects, such as reading, language, or mathematics. The study is to determine if there is a relationship between the level of student achievement SAT-10 math scores and the retention rate. This study should prove that improving math scores would lessen the chances of retention for students in the elementary school setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a relationship between retention and SAT-10 math scores in Houston County Schools. This study should help educators to focus on the struggling students.
Significance and Justification of the Study
The significance of the study may show a relationship of test scores and the retention rate of students in Houston County elementary schools. This would help teachers know how to further help the struggling student in the regular education classroom and prevent retention.
Definition of Terms
SAT-10 – Stanford Achievement Test, version 10
Retention – held at the same grade level
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitation of this study is that the study is centralized elementary schools in one county in Alabama. The county involved is Houston County in south Alabama. This study could be used in any elementary school that gives the Stanford Achievement Test, version 10 and retains students.
Hypothesis
My hypothesis is there will be a significant relationship of achievement levels on SAT-10 in the math area in relationship to retention.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Retention in schools has been an issue for a long time. According to the National Association of School Psychologists, 2006, “Grade retention, defined as requiring a student to remain at his or her current grade level the following school year despite spending a full school year at the given grade, remains a relatively frequently used and controversial intervention” (Silberglitt, B., Jimerson, S.R., Burns, M.K., & Appleton, J.J., 2006). With an increased push for accountability in schools, retention has become more prevalent than ever before.
Jimerson (2006) stated, “With national initiatives such as the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act, there has been an increased emphasis on “closing the achievement gap” between minority and nonminority students and improving the performance of all children. In an effort to ensure that all students meet basic competencies, an array of reading, writing, and other academic standards have emerged as indicators of whether students are proficient and should be promoted to the next grade level (Jimerson et al, 2006).
It has been debated whether retention is better in lower elementary or later in school years. It is also debated as to whether ethnic groups and gender has an impact of statistics for retention.
According to The National Association of School Psychologists stated that in kindergarten through 12th grade retention rates increased by 40% over 20 years. By 1995, the annual rate of retention rose to 13.3%. In the meantime, the kindergarten retention rate was about 6% in 1993 and 5% in 1995. Past research has often been inconclusive with regard to the effects of grade retention on child development. Even more controversial is the practice of retaining young children in kindergarten. Retention in a higher grade is often resorted to as a remedy for students who are behind academically. In contrast, at the kindergarten level, many children are retained for behavioral rather than for academic reasons (Hong, G. & Yu, B., 2008).
According to the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development in 2008 “Although solid statistics are hard to come by, estimates of the number of students retained at least once in their school career range from 10 to 20 percent. Black students are more than twice as likely to be held back as white students, and boys twice as likely as girls” (David, J.L., 2008).
What are we to do as educators to help these struggling students who are falling behind? Does retention really help matters or does it become worse on the student? Literature against retention
On the whole, results of long term studies draw a negative picture of grade retention. Some provide evidence of a few positive effects, which are restricted above all to short-term consequences. According to these studies, retainees achieve the most remarkable benefit during the year of retention, but in the course of time, their academic performances progressively decrease until they drop behind those of their regularly promoted peers again. If the retainees are compared with their new classmates (same-grade comparison), they generally perform better than if they are compared with their former classmates (same-age comparison). This may be due to their difference in age and to the fact that they study the same subject matter over again (Bonvin, P., Bless, G., & Schuepach, M., 2008).
According to Lorence and Dworkin, 2006, retention has been proven ineffective. “Retention is viewed as ineffective because gains in academic achievement during the repeated year are presumed to be either negligible or quickly fade if they do occur” (Lorence, J. & Dworkin, A.G., 2006).
Does age really matter in retention? According to the National Association of Social Workers, 2006, there is no difference in age for retention.
Young children view retention as punishment and experience emotions of fear, anger, and sadness when not promoted. Children perceive it as a strong message the teacher and the school do not consider he student to be capable. Self-esteem, emotional functioning, and peer relations decline while school disengagement, absenteeism, and truancy increase (Leckrone, M.J. & Griffith, B.G., 2006).
According to an article entitled Beyond Grade Retention: A Handbook for Educational Professionals, 2004, the following research was found regarding retention.
• Temporary achievement gains
• Negative impact on achievement and social and emotional adjustment
• Negative long-term effects with emotional distress, low self-esteem, poor peer relations, cigarette use, alcohol and drug abuse, sexual activity, suicidal intentions, and violent behavior
• Retention and dropout correlate
• Consequences during adulthood such as unemployment (Jimerson, S. et al, 2004).
Literature for retention
With all of the negative implications of retention, teachers must work harder to prevent retention.
According to Lisa J. Bowman, 2005, “Standards cannot help students to succeed academically in the absence of quality instruction. One implication is that school districts offer more opportunities for teachers to network-within and among schools- and provide ongoing professional development opportunities. District level personnel also play an important role in developing and carrying out retention policies. However, teacher preparation is a major factor in helping teachers make informed decisions about promoting or retaining students (Bowman, L.J., 2005).
In conclusion, teachers, parents, and administrators should be informed about each student that is being considered for retention. As an educator, it is important to know the effects, both positive and negative, of retention. This along with the child should be considered before retaining a student. Research shows that retention can be detrimental to a child and can harm them for life. Is retention worth that risk?
Chapter III
Research Methodology
Retention and SAT-10 math scores will be analyzed to determine if a relationship exists between the two variables. The following steps will be used to analyze this study.
Research Question
1. Is there a relationship between SAT-10 math scores and retention of Houston County elementary students?
2. Does gender make a difference in retention rate?
3. Does socioeconomic status make a difference in retention rates?
4. Does race make a difference in retention rates?
Population
The population of the study would include all Houston County elementary students who were being considered for retention in grades K-5.
Data Collection
Data would be taken from the SAT-10 math scores of students. The student scores would be analyzed according to SAT-10 scores and classroom performance grades to see if a relationship exists between the two scores. Students would be selected randomly and then a stratified sampling would follow by gender, socioeconomic status, and by race.
Instrumentation
This study would use SPSS with a paired t-test to analyze the data. The scores would be compared to determine if there is a significant relationship between the variables.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
No student would be harmed in this study. By using random and stratified sampling, student identities would be protected and only their genders would be revealed through this study.
Data Analysis
A t-test will be used to determine if there is a relationship between SAT-10 scores and retention. If no significant difference is noticed, the null hypothesis would be accepted. If a significant difference is gathered, the alternate hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected through this study.
References
Bonvin, P., Bless, G. & Schuepbach, M. (2008 March). Grade retention: decision making and effects on learning as well as social and emotional development. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 19 (1). 1-19.
Bowman, L.J. (2005 Spring). Grade retention: Is it a help or hindrance to student academic success?. Preventing School Failure.
David, J.L. (2008 March). What research says about grade retention. Educational Leadership.
Hung, G. & Yu, B. (2008). Effects of kindergarten retention on children’s social- emotional development: An application of propensity score method to multivariate, multilevel data. Developmental Psychology. 44 (2). 407-421.
Jimerson, S.R. et al. (2006). Beyond grade retention and social promotion: Promoting the social and academic competence of students. Psychology in the Schools. 43 (1).
Leckrone, M.J. & Griffith, B.G. (2006 January). Retention realities and educational standards. Children & Schools. 28 (1).
Lorence, J. & Dworkin, A.G. (2006). Elementary grade retention in Texas and reading achievement among racial groups: 1994-2002. Review of Policy Research. 23(5).
Silberglitt, B., Jimerson, S.R., Burns, M.K., & Appleton, J.J. (2006). Does the timing of grade retention make a difference? Examining the effects of early versus later retention. School Psychology Review. 35 (1). 134-141.
Study of the Relationship
Between Retention and SAT-10 Math Scores
A Proposal
Presented to the
Graduate Faculty of
Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
EDU 6691
By
Natalie N. McCord
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the problem
One of many problems in Houston County School is retention as it relates to Stanford Achievement Test, Version 10 math scores. This is a study of Houston County Schools in Alabama in which students are retained according to the main academic subjects, such as reading, language, or mathematics. The study is to determine if there is a relationship between the level of student achievement SAT-10 math scores and the retention rate. This study should prove that improving math scores would lessen the chances of retention for students in the elementary school setting.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a relationship between retention and SAT-10 math scores in Houston County Schools. This study should help educators to focus on the struggling students.
Significance and Justification of the Study
The significance of the study may show a relationship of test scores and the retention rate of students in Houston County elementary schools. This would help teachers know how to further help the struggling student in the regular education classroom and prevent retention.
Definition of Terms
SAT-10 – Stanford Achievement Test, version 10
Retention – held at the same grade level
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitation of this study is that the study is centralized elementary schools in one county in Alabama. The county involved is Houston County in south Alabama. This study could be used in any elementary school that gives the Stanford Achievement Test, version 10 and retains students.
Hypothesis
My hypothesis is there will be a significant relationship of achievement levels on SAT-10 in the math area in relationship to retention.
Chapter II
Literature Review
Retention in schools has been an issue for a long time. According to the National Association of School Psychologists, 2006, “Grade retention, defined as requiring a student to remain at his or her current grade level the following school year despite spending a full school year at the given grade, remains a relatively frequently used and controversial intervention” (Silberglitt, B., Jimerson, S.R., Burns, M.K., & Appleton, J.J., 2006). With an increased push for accountability in schools, retention has become more prevalent than ever before.
Jimerson (2006) stated, “With national initiatives such as the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act, there has been an increased emphasis on “closing the achievement gap” between minority and nonminority students and improving the performance of all children. In an effort to ensure that all students meet basic competencies, an array of reading, writing, and other academic standards have emerged as indicators of whether students are proficient and should be promoted to the next grade level (Jimerson et al, 2006).
It has been debated whether retention is better in lower elementary or later in school years. It is also debated as to whether ethnic groups and gender has an impact of statistics for retention.
According to The National Association of School Psychologists stated that in kindergarten through 12th grade retention rates increased by 40% over 20 years. By 1995, the annual rate of retention rose to 13.3%. In the meantime, the kindergarten retention rate was about 6% in 1993 and 5% in 1995. Past research has often been inconclusive with regard to the effects of grade retention on child development. Even more controversial is the practice of retaining young children in kindergarten. Retention in a higher grade is often resorted to as a remedy for students who are behind academically. In contrast, at the kindergarten level, many children are retained for behavioral rather than for academic reasons (Hong, G. & Yu, B., 2008).
According to the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development in 2008 “Although solid statistics are hard to come by, estimates of the number of students retained at least once in their school career range from 10 to 20 percent. Black students are more than twice as likely to be held back as white students, and boys twice as likely as girls” (David, J.L., 2008).
What are we to do as educators to help these struggling students who are falling behind? Does retention really help matters or does it become worse on the student? Literature against retention
On the whole, results of long term studies draw a negative picture of grade retention. Some provide evidence of a few positive effects, which are restricted above all to short-term consequences. According to these studies, retainees achieve the most remarkable benefit during the year of retention, but in the course of time, their academic performances progressively decrease until they drop behind those of their regularly promoted peers again. If the retainees are compared with their new classmates (same-grade comparison), they generally perform better than if they are compared with their former classmates (same-age comparison). This may be due to their difference in age and to the fact that they study the same subject matter over again (Bonvin, P., Bless, G., & Schuepach, M., 2008).
According to Lorence and Dworkin, 2006, retention has been proven ineffective. “Retention is viewed as ineffective because gains in academic achievement during the repeated year are presumed to be either negligible or quickly fade if they do occur” (Lorence, J. & Dworkin, A.G., 2006).
Does age really matter in retention? According to the National Association of Social Workers, 2006, there is no difference in age for retention.
Young children view retention as punishment and experience emotions of fear, anger, and sadness when not promoted. Children perceive it as a strong message the teacher and the school do not consider he student to be capable. Self-esteem, emotional functioning, and peer relations decline while school disengagement, absenteeism, and truancy increase (Leckrone, M.J. & Griffith, B.G., 2006).
According to an article entitled Beyond Grade Retention: A Handbook for Educational Professionals, 2004, the following research was found regarding retention.
• Temporary achievement gains
• Negative impact on achievement and social and emotional adjustment
• Negative long-term effects with emotional distress, low self-esteem, poor peer relations, cigarette use, alcohol and drug abuse, sexual activity, suicidal intentions, and violent behavior
• Retention and dropout correlate
• Consequences during adulthood such as unemployment (Jimerson, S. et al, 2004).
Literature for retention
With all of the negative implications of retention, teachers must work harder to prevent retention.
According to Lisa J. Bowman, 2005, “Standards cannot help students to succeed academically in the absence of quality instruction. One implication is that school districts offer more opportunities for teachers to network-within and among schools- and provide ongoing professional development opportunities. District level personnel also play an important role in developing and carrying out retention policies. However, teacher preparation is a major factor in helping teachers make informed decisions about promoting or retaining students (Bowman, L.J., 2005).
In conclusion, teachers, parents, and administrators should be informed about each student that is being considered for retention. As an educator, it is important to know the effects, both positive and negative, of retention. This along with the child should be considered before retaining a student. Research shows that retention can be detrimental to a child and can harm them for life. Is retention worth that risk?
Chapter III
Research Methodology
Retention and SAT-10 math scores will be analyzed to determine if a relationship exists between the two variables. The following steps will be used to analyze this study.
Research Question
1. Is there a relationship between SAT-10 math scores and retention of Houston County elementary students?
2. Does gender make a difference in retention rate?
3. Does socioeconomic status make a difference in retention rates?
4. Does race make a difference in retention rates?
Population
The population of the study would include all Houston County elementary students who were being considered for retention in grades K-5.
Data Collection
Data would be taken from the SAT-10 math scores of students. The student scores would be analyzed according to SAT-10 scores and classroom performance grades to see if a relationship exists between the two scores. Students would be selected randomly and then a stratified sampling would follow by gender, socioeconomic status, and by race.
Instrumentation
This study would use SPSS with a paired t-test to analyze the data. The scores would be compared to determine if there is a significant relationship between the variables.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
No student would be harmed in this study. By using random and stratified sampling, student identities would be protected and only their genders would be revealed through this study.
Data Analysis
A t-test will be used to determine if there is a relationship between SAT-10 scores and retention. If no significant difference is noticed, the null hypothesis would be accepted. If a significant difference is gathered, the alternate hypothesis is accepted and the null hypothesis is rejected through this study.
References
Bonvin, P., Bless, G. & Schuepbach, M. (2008 March). Grade retention: decision making and effects on learning as well as social and emotional development. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. 19 (1). 1-19.
Bowman, L.J. (2005 Spring). Grade retention: Is it a help or hindrance to student academic success?. Preventing School Failure.
David, J.L. (2008 March). What research says about grade retention. Educational Leadership.
Hung, G. & Yu, B. (2008). Effects of kindergarten retention on children’s social- emotional development: An application of propensity score method to multivariate, multilevel data. Developmental Psychology. 44 (2). 407-421.
Jimerson, S.R. et al. (2006). Beyond grade retention and social promotion: Promoting the social and academic competence of students. Psychology in the Schools. 43 (1).
Leckrone, M.J. & Griffith, B.G. (2006 January). Retention realities and educational standards. Children & Schools. 28 (1).
Lorence, J. & Dworkin, A.G. (2006). Elementary grade retention in Texas and reading achievement among racial groups: 1994-2002. Review of Policy Research. 23(5).
Silberglitt, B., Jimerson, S.R., Burns, M.K., & Appleton, J.J. (2006). Does the timing of grade retention make a difference? Examining the effects of early versus later retention. School Psychology Review. 35 (1). 134-141.
Monday, April 20, 2009
The Effects of Family Structure on the SAT-10 Scores of
The Effects of Family Structure on the SAT-10 Scores of
Middle School Students in Southeast Alabama
A Proposal Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for EDU 6691
By Jenna Palmore
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Problem Statement
According to the Center for Health Statistics (2007b), there were 21,255 divorces granted in Alabama in 2007, a rate of 4.6% per 1000 people. In Houston County, Alabama, the rate was 6.6% with 639 divorces being granted. Both the Alabama and Houston County rates were higher than the national average of 3.6% (Center for Health Statistics, 2007a). Custody of the children is often a major point of concern in divorce cases and generally results in the forced transition of the children to a single-parent household or a cycle of living with each parent for a specified amount of time. Not all single-parent households are the result of divorces, however. Sometimes, children are born into them because one of the parents, more often the father, does not want to be involved in the child’s life. It is also becomingly increasingly popular for single individuals to adopt children. The question that this study seeks to answer is whether the absence of a parent has an effect on the academic achievement of the children.
Purpose of the Study
The intent of this study is to determine if student achievement is affected by the structure of the family. Specifically, this study will determine if there is a significant difference in the SAT-10 scores of students who live in single-parent households compared to students who live in two-parent households.
Significance of the Study
By understanding the effects of family structure on the academic achievement of middle school students, steps can be taken to ensure that parents are aware of the effects and are educated on what they can do to improve their child’s performance. Though the geographic scope of the study is small, the results may be useful to parents and teachers all over the country.
Definition of Terms
SAT-10: Stanford Achievement Test, series 10; a standardized test that measures students’ knowledge in core subject areas.
Single-parent household: one in which one or more children live with and receive primary care from a single individual, either male or female.
Two-parent household: one in which one or more children live with and receive primary care from one male and one female who are legally married
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study will utilize data from the four public middle schools in Dothan, Alabama for the 2007-2008 school year. These schools include Beverlye Middle, Carver Magnet, Girard Middle, and Honeysuckle Middle Schools. The total middle school enrollment for the 2007-2008 school year was approximately 2000 students (Dothan City Schools, n.d.). This study will utilize the scores of students whose family structure meets the requirements of a one- or two-parent household as defined above. The scores of students whose family structure falls outside of these definitions will not be included in the study sample.
Hypothesis
The data will show a significant difference in the scores between students who live in two-parent homes and students who live in single-parent homes. Students from two-parent households will have higher scores on the SAT-10.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
The general consensus among researchers is that family structure does have an effect on the academic achievement of secondary school students. Where researchers differ is on the specific causes and extent of the effects. There is not a large body of geographically-specific research on the effects of family structure on standardized test scores, nor is there sufficient research of the effects on scores in history or social studies.
Support for Negative Effects
J. Battle (1997) looked at the effects of family structure on Hispanic students in middle school and determined that students who live in two-parent households generally exhibit higher achievement than students who live in single-parent households.
S.-L. Pong (1997) also cited evidence of lower academic achievement in students from single-parent families but included stepfamilies in the same category. Pong stated that these students have lower scores on standardized tests and are more likely to have behavioral problems in school. In addition, students from single-parent and stepfamilies are more likely to drop out of school and not attend college. The author hypothesized that socioeconomic factors played a role in these findings. This idea supports the theory that single parents have less time to spend with their children because they must work to provide for their family. Pong also found a relationship between the number of students in the school who came from nontraditional families and the overall performance of the school as a whole, concluding that:
…attending a school with a high concentration of students from single-parent families and stepfamilies is, on average, more detrimental to a student’s eighth-grade achievement than is his or her living in a single-parent family or stepfamily (p. 744).
S. Cavanagh and others (2006) support many of the same theories cited by Pong (1997) such as lower graduation rates, standardized test scores, and academic grades for students who come from nontraditional families. Cavanagh and his fellow researchers hypothesized that these negative effects are the result of a lifetime of family instability, stating that “family structure at birth predicted students’ academic status in math in the ninth grade” (p. 329).
W. Jeynes (2005) has authored multiple papers dealing with the relationship of student academic achievement, family life, and religion. He supports the idea that students coming from a single-parent household will often have lower academic achievement than their peers who come from two-parent households. Jeynes cites evidence that students coming from stepfamilies may have even lower scores than those from single-parent families. The underlying cause of these negative effects is a lack of parental involvement which can be attributed to many different factors including lack of interest or the necessity of working long hours. Jeynes used standardized test scores, as well as other factors, in his study. He concluded that family structure had an effect on the academic achievement of students in relation to the amount of communication between the parents and the children. The presumption is that students in single-parent or stepfamilies do not have as much access to one or both parents, and, therefore, communication is impeded.
Support for Little or No Effects
H. Marsh (1990) conducted a study to determine if family structure had a significant effect on the academic achievement of students through their last two years of high school. He looked at the students in the tenth grade and then, two years later, in the twelfth grade. Marsh looked at 22 different variables and came to the conclusion that the structure of the family had “remarkably little effect on student growth and changes during the last two years of high school” (p. 337).
Chapter III
Methodology
A quantitative approach will be utilized to determine if family structure has an effect on the overall achievement of middle school students in the subject of social studies. Scores from the SAT-10 will be used to indicate achievement in this study.
Research Questions
Through this study, the researcher aims to address the following questions:
1. What percentage of middle school students in Dothan, Alabama, who attend public schools, are currently living with two parents?
2. What percentage of middle school students in Dothan, Alabama, who attend public schools, are currently living with only one parent?
3. When compared, is there a significant difference between the SAT-10 social studies scores of students who live in single-parent households and those who live in dual-parent households?
4. Is the same conclusion reached for each grade level in the middle school setting?
Population
The scores compared in the study will be obtained from the Dothan City Schools database of students who attend the four public middle schools in Dothan, Alabama. Each of these schools contains students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The only reason a student’s score would not be included in the study sample is if their family structure does not fall under the definitions included in chapter one.
Data Collection
The SAT-10 scores of students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades during the 2007-2008 school year will be used in this study. These scores are kept on file with the Dothan City Schools system. The school system also keeps demographical information on file for each student. These records will be needed to determine the family structure of each student, and permission to view and use these records will need to be obtained.
Instrumentation
Predictive Analytics Software, formerly known as SPSS, will be utilized for data input and analysis.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis will be used to determine the percentages of students who live in one- and two-parent households. Using demographical data obtained through the Dothan City School system, students will be placed into one of the two categories. If a student’s family structure does not meet the requirements of a one- or two-parent household as defined in chapter one, that student’s scores will not be used in the sample. Once the raw totals have been determined, those numbers will be converted into percentages.
Once the mean score of each group has been established, a t-test will be used to determine if there is a significant difference in the scores of the student population as a whole. Using ANOVA, the researcher will then analyze the scores of each separate grade level to determine if the results of the t-test are consistent across all grades.
Ethical Treatment of Population
No direct contact will be necessary between the researcher and the students whose scores will be analyzed in the study. All information will be obtained through the administration and records of the Dothan City School system. Grade level and family structure status (one- or two-parent) are the only identifying factors that will be linked to the students whose scores are being used. Because this study focuses on two specific groups of students, there will be no need for any student to be individually identified in the course of the study.
References
Battle, J.J. (1997). Academic achievement among Hispanic students from one- versus dual-parent households. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19(2). Abstract retrieved March 26, 2009 from ProQuest Education Journals database.
Cavanagh, S.E., Schiller, K.S., and Riegle-Crumb, C. (2006). Marital transitions, parenting, and schooling: Exploring the link between family-structure history and adolescents’ academic status. Sociology of Education, 79(4), 329-354. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from ProQuest Education Journals database.
Center for Health Statistic, Statistical Analysis Division. (2007a). Table 77, divorces and divorce rates, Alabama and the United States, 1945-2007. Retrieved March 11, 2009 from http://www.adph.org/healthstats/assets/divorcetable77avs07.pdf
Center for Health Statistics, Statistical Analysis Division. (2007b). Table 78, divorces and divorce rates by county of decree, Alabama, 2007. Retrieved March 11, 2009 from http://www.adph.org/healthstats/assets/divorcetable78avs07.pdf
Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Dothan City Schools 2007-2008 school year enrollment summary. (n.d.) Accessed March 3, 2009 from http://www.dothank12al.us/enrollment/summary0708.htm
Jeynes, W.H. (2005). Effects of parental involvement and family structure on the academic achievement of adolescents. Marriage and Family Review, 37(3), 99-116. Retrieved March 27, 2009 from ProQuest Humanities International Complete database.
Marsh, H.W. (1990). Two-parent, stepparent, and single-parent families: Changes in achievement, attitudes, and behaviors during the last two years of high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2), 327-340. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from EBSCOhost database.
Pong, S.-L. (1997). Family structure, school context, and eighth-grade math and reading achievement. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59(3), 734-746. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from EBSCOhost database.
Middle School Students in Southeast Alabama
A Proposal Presented to the Graduate Faculty of Troy University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for EDU 6691
By Jenna Palmore
Troy University Dothan
Chapter I
Introduction
Problem Statement
According to the Center for Health Statistics (2007b), there were 21,255 divorces granted in Alabama in 2007, a rate of 4.6% per 1000 people. In Houston County, Alabama, the rate was 6.6% with 639 divorces being granted. Both the Alabama and Houston County rates were higher than the national average of 3.6% (Center for Health Statistics, 2007a). Custody of the children is often a major point of concern in divorce cases and generally results in the forced transition of the children to a single-parent household or a cycle of living with each parent for a specified amount of time. Not all single-parent households are the result of divorces, however. Sometimes, children are born into them because one of the parents, more often the father, does not want to be involved in the child’s life. It is also becomingly increasingly popular for single individuals to adopt children. The question that this study seeks to answer is whether the absence of a parent has an effect on the academic achievement of the children.
Purpose of the Study
The intent of this study is to determine if student achievement is affected by the structure of the family. Specifically, this study will determine if there is a significant difference in the SAT-10 scores of students who live in single-parent households compared to students who live in two-parent households.
Significance of the Study
By understanding the effects of family structure on the academic achievement of middle school students, steps can be taken to ensure that parents are aware of the effects and are educated on what they can do to improve their child’s performance. Though the geographic scope of the study is small, the results may be useful to parents and teachers all over the country.
Definition of Terms
SAT-10: Stanford Achievement Test, series 10; a standardized test that measures students’ knowledge in core subject areas.
Single-parent household: one in which one or more children live with and receive primary care from a single individual, either male or female.
Two-parent household: one in which one or more children live with and receive primary care from one male and one female who are legally married
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study will utilize data from the four public middle schools in Dothan, Alabama for the 2007-2008 school year. These schools include Beverlye Middle, Carver Magnet, Girard Middle, and Honeysuckle Middle Schools. The total middle school enrollment for the 2007-2008 school year was approximately 2000 students (Dothan City Schools, n.d.). This study will utilize the scores of students whose family structure meets the requirements of a one- or two-parent household as defined above. The scores of students whose family structure falls outside of these definitions will not be included in the study sample.
Hypothesis
The data will show a significant difference in the scores between students who live in two-parent homes and students who live in single-parent homes. Students from two-parent households will have higher scores on the SAT-10.
Chapter II
Review of Literature
The general consensus among researchers is that family structure does have an effect on the academic achievement of secondary school students. Where researchers differ is on the specific causes and extent of the effects. There is not a large body of geographically-specific research on the effects of family structure on standardized test scores, nor is there sufficient research of the effects on scores in history or social studies.
Support for Negative Effects
J. Battle (1997) looked at the effects of family structure on Hispanic students in middle school and determined that students who live in two-parent households generally exhibit higher achievement than students who live in single-parent households.
S.-L. Pong (1997) also cited evidence of lower academic achievement in students from single-parent families but included stepfamilies in the same category. Pong stated that these students have lower scores on standardized tests and are more likely to have behavioral problems in school. In addition, students from single-parent and stepfamilies are more likely to drop out of school and not attend college. The author hypothesized that socioeconomic factors played a role in these findings. This idea supports the theory that single parents have less time to spend with their children because they must work to provide for their family. Pong also found a relationship between the number of students in the school who came from nontraditional families and the overall performance of the school as a whole, concluding that:
…attending a school with a high concentration of students from single-parent families and stepfamilies is, on average, more detrimental to a student’s eighth-grade achievement than is his or her living in a single-parent family or stepfamily (p. 744).
S. Cavanagh and others (2006) support many of the same theories cited by Pong (1997) such as lower graduation rates, standardized test scores, and academic grades for students who come from nontraditional families. Cavanagh and his fellow researchers hypothesized that these negative effects are the result of a lifetime of family instability, stating that “family structure at birth predicted students’ academic status in math in the ninth grade” (p. 329).
W. Jeynes (2005) has authored multiple papers dealing with the relationship of student academic achievement, family life, and religion. He supports the idea that students coming from a single-parent household will often have lower academic achievement than their peers who come from two-parent households. Jeynes cites evidence that students coming from stepfamilies may have even lower scores than those from single-parent families. The underlying cause of these negative effects is a lack of parental involvement which can be attributed to many different factors including lack of interest or the necessity of working long hours. Jeynes used standardized test scores, as well as other factors, in his study. He concluded that family structure had an effect on the academic achievement of students in relation to the amount of communication between the parents and the children. The presumption is that students in single-parent or stepfamilies do not have as much access to one or both parents, and, therefore, communication is impeded.
Support for Little or No Effects
H. Marsh (1990) conducted a study to determine if family structure had a significant effect on the academic achievement of students through their last two years of high school. He looked at the students in the tenth grade and then, two years later, in the twelfth grade. Marsh looked at 22 different variables and came to the conclusion that the structure of the family had “remarkably little effect on student growth and changes during the last two years of high school” (p. 337).
Chapter III
Methodology
A quantitative approach will be utilized to determine if family structure has an effect on the overall achievement of middle school students in the subject of social studies. Scores from the SAT-10 will be used to indicate achievement in this study.
Research Questions
Through this study, the researcher aims to address the following questions:
1. What percentage of middle school students in Dothan, Alabama, who attend public schools, are currently living with two parents?
2. What percentage of middle school students in Dothan, Alabama, who attend public schools, are currently living with only one parent?
3. When compared, is there a significant difference between the SAT-10 social studies scores of students who live in single-parent households and those who live in dual-parent households?
4. Is the same conclusion reached for each grade level in the middle school setting?
Population
The scores compared in the study will be obtained from the Dothan City Schools database of students who attend the four public middle schools in Dothan, Alabama. Each of these schools contains students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The only reason a student’s score would not be included in the study sample is if their family structure does not fall under the definitions included in chapter one.
Data Collection
The SAT-10 scores of students in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades during the 2007-2008 school year will be used in this study. These scores are kept on file with the Dothan City Schools system. The school system also keeps demographical information on file for each student. These records will be needed to determine the family structure of each student, and permission to view and use these records will need to be obtained.
Instrumentation
Predictive Analytics Software, formerly known as SPSS, will be utilized for data input and analysis.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis will be used to determine the percentages of students who live in one- and two-parent households. Using demographical data obtained through the Dothan City School system, students will be placed into one of the two categories. If a student’s family structure does not meet the requirements of a one- or two-parent household as defined in chapter one, that student’s scores will not be used in the sample. Once the raw totals have been determined, those numbers will be converted into percentages.
Once the mean score of each group has been established, a t-test will be used to determine if there is a significant difference in the scores of the student population as a whole. Using ANOVA, the researcher will then analyze the scores of each separate grade level to determine if the results of the t-test are consistent across all grades.
Ethical Treatment of Population
No direct contact will be necessary between the researcher and the students whose scores will be analyzed in the study. All information will be obtained through the administration and records of the Dothan City School system. Grade level and family structure status (one- or two-parent) are the only identifying factors that will be linked to the students whose scores are being used. Because this study focuses on two specific groups of students, there will be no need for any student to be individually identified in the course of the study.
References
Battle, J.J. (1997). Academic achievement among Hispanic students from one- versus dual-parent households. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19(2). Abstract retrieved March 26, 2009 from ProQuest Education Journals database.
Cavanagh, S.E., Schiller, K.S., and Riegle-Crumb, C. (2006). Marital transitions, parenting, and schooling: Exploring the link between family-structure history and adolescents’ academic status. Sociology of Education, 79(4), 329-354. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from ProQuest Education Journals database.
Center for Health Statistic, Statistical Analysis Division. (2007a). Table 77, divorces and divorce rates, Alabama and the United States, 1945-2007. Retrieved March 11, 2009 from http://www.adph.org/healthstats/assets/divorcetable77avs07.pdf
Center for Health Statistics, Statistical Analysis Division. (2007b). Table 78, divorces and divorce rates by county of decree, Alabama, 2007. Retrieved March 11, 2009 from http://www.adph.org/healthstats/assets/divorcetable78avs07.pdf
Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Dothan City Schools 2007-2008 school year enrollment summary. (n.d.) Accessed March 3, 2009 from http://www.dothank12al.us/enrollment/summary0708.htm
Jeynes, W.H. (2005). Effects of parental involvement and family structure on the academic achievement of adolescents. Marriage and Family Review, 37(3), 99-116. Retrieved March 27, 2009 from ProQuest Humanities International Complete database.
Marsh, H.W. (1990). Two-parent, stepparent, and single-parent families: Changes in achievement, attitudes, and behaviors during the last two years of high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2), 327-340. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from EBSCOhost database.
Pong, S.-L. (1997). Family structure, school context, and eighth-grade math and reading achievement. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59(3), 734-746. Retrieved March 26, 2009 from EBSCOhost database.
The effects on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam
The effects on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam
Concerning the Use of Live Versus Alternative Dissecting Techniques
A proposal presented to the faculty of Troy University in partial fulfillments of the requirements for EDU6691
By
Jessica A. Smith
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
“Close to six million vertebrate animals are dissected in US high schools alone each year (Balcombe, 2000, p. 24). Is it truly necessary to allow high school students to continue to dissect animals when there are numerous alternatives available? Biology is the study of life. To study life, students do not have to view animals after death. Many studies have proven that dissection alternatives can be more effective or at least equal to live dissections. Alternatives are also less expensive than embalmed specimens. In order to understand the current state of dissection in American high schools, one must first understand the history of dissection.
Dissection has been the traditional way to expose and learn about animal structure. Dissection has an ancient and classical lineage, the documentation of which can be traced back to Aristotle’s work on such things as embryology, and Galen’s publication of the results of his investigations on animals. Galen never carried out vivisection on gladiators, but he benefitted from the detailed knowledge gained by those who attended gladiator’s injuries. Vesalius (born Andreas van Wesel, 1514-1564) in the 16th century was perhaps the greatest anatomist. He took advantage of the papal ruling of 1540 that cadavers of those who had committed sins that would condemn them to hell could be used for dissection. Even then, the theological problems associated with the resurrection of the body continued to limit the supply of human corpses in Europe. In the early 19th century, Burke and Hare of Edinburgh became among the most celebrated suppliers of bodies for a medical school as they turned to murder to maintain their trade (De Villers & Monk, 2005, p. 584).
Dissection continues to provide valuable experience for individuals entering the medical field. However, “the Humane Society of the United States found that for a typical school’s needs, the cost of providing animal specimens for dissection was often greater than the cost of purchasing a range of reusable alternative materials” (Balcombe, 2000, pg. 44). Due to current proration in Alabama schools, any program that saves a significant amount of money should be considered. Additionally, many organizations provide dissection alternatives on a free loan program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine if the use of animal dissection in the Alabama high school Biology classroom has any effect on student’s scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Biology section. The Biology section is composed entirely of biology questions. The effect of alternatives to dissection, such as computer programs, models, and videos, on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Science section will also be examined. Gathering this information will help school districts decide whether to continue to use live dissections in the classroom or to choose other alternatives.
Significance of the Study
Many students do not like the idea of dissection and refuse to participate. According to Millett and Lock (1992), only 32% of secondary school learners indicated that they would find dissecting a dead animal interesting; 73% thought that it was wrong to breed animals for dissection; and 38% said they would object to any animal material being used for dissection. Clearly, the opinions of students are not being considered. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the continued use of dissection in the classroom.
Definition of Terms
Alabama Graduation Exam: tests high school students on an eleventh-grade level. It includes sections on language, reading comprehension, math, biology, and social studies. To receive a diploma from the State of Alabama, a student must pass all sections of the exam and complete the required Carnegie units of credit. Students have at least five chances to pass the test, once as a sophomore, once as a junior, and three times as a senior.
Dissection: The process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function and relationship of its components.
Dissection alternatives: Alternatives include virtual dissection software (CD-ROM), plastic models, pictorial atlases, videos, dissection charts, and dissection manuals. All provide accurate representation of the internal anatomy of an animal.
Live dissection: The process of disassembling a live or preserved animal specimen in order to learn about its internal anatomy.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will use a quantitative methodology to investigate the effects of live versus alternative dissecting techniques on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. The schools researched will be found in the state of Alabama. An equal number of schools using live dissection and those using dissection alternatives will be examined. School size, socioeconomic levels, race and gender distribution will also be equal in schools researched.
Hypothesis
Students using alternative dissection methods in the Biology classrooms will perform as well or better on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Biology section than students who perform live dissections.
Chapter II
Literature Review
A growing number of students in the United States are refusing to perform dissections in their high school Biology classroom. According to Millett and Lock (1992), 83.5 percent of high school students surveyed felt that alternatives to animal experimentation be found. In an age of increasing environmental awareness, more emphasis will continue to be placed on the preservation of animal species. Orlans (1991) states that the concerns range from inhumane treatment of animals by the supply industry and the depletion of natural populations of affected species to concerns about the emotional responses of students who are ”turned off” to biology because of a dislike of dissection. Alternatives to dissection have been proven to be highly effective in high school Biology classrooms.
Concerns about live dissection
Often animals used in the classroom have been taken off the street, purchased from animal shelters, or bred specifically for the purpose. The most commonly dissected animals include cats, dogs, fetal pigs, rats, bony fish, sharks, crayfish, earthworms, starfish and frogs. Additionally, frogs are often pulled from the wild. This is especially discouraging due to the chytrid fungus that continues to wipe out entire species of frogs. Balcombe (2000) states that animals to be used for dissections are treated without respect and euthanized in an inhumane manner.
The acquisition of animals used for dissection is not regulated. Animals have been taken off the streets, where they could be someone’s pet. According to Balcombe (2000), in a large seizure of embalmbed cats in Mexico, the man in charge of collecting the cats admitted that a large portion of them were probably owned. The same is true for dogs. Also, cats and dogs can be purchased from animal shelters where they were euthanized. Due to the pet overpopulation, there is a surplus of pets that cannot be placed in a new home. However, most shelters profit from this. They sell euthanized cats and dogs to biological supply companies, who then sell them to schools. Often, animals are bred specifically for the purpose of dissection. This is true of certain types of frogs, as well as fetal pigs. After slaughter, the fetal pigs of pregnant sows are removed and sold to biological supply companies.
Of a major concern, is the removal of animals from the wild to satisfy dissection demands. Frog populations have continued to decline over the past decade. Removal of species from the wild contributes to this decline. “Efforts to turn the tide for frogs should involve both curbing human exploitation of wild populations and fostering appreciation and respect for their kind” (Balcombe, 2000, p. 33). Dogfish sharks are also taken from the wild in such large numbers that the species in on the verge on endangerment.
Unfortunately, animals that are to be euthanized for dissection purposes are treated inhumanely before, and during the euthanization process. In a People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) investigation of Carolina Biological Supply Company (PETA, 2000), numerous counts of animal cruelty were observed. Animals were denied food and water while being kept in cramped cages. Some animals did not die in the gas chambers used for euthanization, but were embalmed anyway. Others animals were drowned in buckets of water if they escaped the gas chamber alive. Such disrespect for animal life undermines the very idea of biological study.
Furthermore, high school students are beginning to foster a greater awareness of environmental issues. Along with this comes compassion for animals. This compassion causes many students to be very distressed at the idea of mutilating an animal. In fact, dissection seems to “desensitize individuals toward the treatment of other species” (Barr & Herzog, 2000, p. 67). If students are taught that they have a right to dominion over animals, then they will continue to foster that belief instead of working to preserve the balance of Earth’s ecosystems.
Alternatives to live dissection
There are many alternative to live dissections available. Many CD-ROM programs, such as CatLab exist that simulate the actual step-by-step performance of dissection. They allow students to make cuts in the specimen using the mouse and cursor. Some programs also offer three-deminsional views inside the body. Three-dimensional models made of plastic, can provide tactile and spatial experiences not present in computer programs. Such models allow students to see accurately sized representations of body parts and systems. There are also life-size models of the human body available. Additionally, there are videos, charts, workbooks, and picture atlases available for classroom use.
Effectiveness of dissection alternatives
Numerous studies have found that alternatives to dissection are very effective. Downie and Meadows (1995) examined the test results of 10 undergraduate biology students who had the choice to dissect a rat or use alternative models, charts and demonstrators. Students recorded exactly the same mean score on the test, regardless of the method they used. Additionally, in a study carried out by Predavec (2001), students who completed a computer-based rat dissection scored 74 percentage points better on a test than students completing the conventional dissection.
Malony (2005), studied 224 studnets enrolled in an all-girl high school. Students who completed the virtual dissection scored significantly higher on practical and objective tests that were used to measure knowledge acquisition. Dissection alternatives have proven to be effective instructional tools.
Popularity of live dissection
Students in the United States continue to dissect animals in the classroom even though it has been virtually eliminated in many other countries. For example, “dissection of whole organisms in school biology classes in Britain has all but ceased, largely due to ethical concerns surrounding the fact that these organisms were specifically bred for the purpose” (Roscoe, 2007, p. 6). It seems as though the United States will soon follow suit. According to Haury (1996), ever since the California Supreme Court supported the refusal of a student to dissect a frog in a high school biology class in 1987, there has been a steady decline in dissection.
Cost comparison of live dissection and dissection alternatives
“Teachers and administrators often cite the cost of alternatives as a reason for their not being implemented” (Balcombe, 1997, p.22). In fact, animal dissection is often more expensive. This is because preserved animal specimens must be purchased every year. Alternatives such as videos , models, and computer programs can be purchased once, updated as needed, and used repeatedly. Balcombe (2000), compares the cost of live cat dissection versus alternative dissection methods for a three-year period. Estimates are based on a class size of thirty students with the teacher having three classes that dissect per year. The lowest total cost of a live cat dissection is $4,991. This estimate includes 135 animals (2 students per cat), a 64-page dissection manual (30) and supplies (scalpels, scissors, formaldehyde, etc.). The total cost estimate for alternatives would be $1,865. This estimate includes 2 anatomy models, a dissection video, CatWorks program (4), CatLab CD-ROM (4), a 64-page dissection manual (30), and a VCR or DVD player if needed. The savings over a three-year period when choosing alternatives over live dissections is $3,126.
Chapter III
Methodology
Methods
A quantitative study will be performed to test if there is a significant difference between student performance on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam and the use of live or alternative dissecting techniques. Data will be collected from the individual schools participating as well as the Alabama State Department of Education. A statistical analysis of the scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be performed. Results should be reliable, because every student that takes the Graduation Exam has identical questions.
Research Questions
When collecting data, the researcher should consider the following questions:
1. Are there significant differences in Biology scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam of students who participated in live dissection in Biology class compared to students who participated in alternative dissection techniques in Biology class?
2. Does gender influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
3. Does race influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
4. Does socioeconomic status influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
5. Does school funding influence the use of live or alternative dissection techniques in the Biology classroom?
Population
The population involved in this study will consist of students in Alabama high schools who have taken Biology, either using live dissection or alternative dissecting techniques, and have also taken the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. An equal number of students from both categories will be compared. The student population is diverse and will vary in age, race, and socioeconomic status.
Data Collection
Student scores on the Biology Section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be gathered from participating schools or from the Alabama State Department of Education. The students will be grouped into two groups: students who participated in live dissections in Biology class and students who participated in alternative dissection techniques in Biology class.
Instrumentation
The instrument used in the study to compare the effects of live versus alternative dissecting techniques on the Biology Section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be an ANOVA, where three variables will be compared and a paired sample t-test, in which the means of the two variables are compared. The means of students who participated in live dissection in Biology class will be compared to the means of students who participated in alternative dissecting techniques in Biology class.
Data Analysis
The study will use statistical software, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), to analyze the mean scores of the two groups of students. A t-test and an ANOVA will be used to determine if there is a significant difference between scores on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam (AHSGE) of students participating in live dissections compared to students who participated in alternative dissecting techniques. The data will be analyzed to determine if there is a significant difference between student performance on the AHSGE and the type of dissection technique they used.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
The identities of students will remain anonymous. Only test scores will be analyzed. A permission form for individual students will not be necessary as long as the researcher has gained proper legal access to student scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE from administrators at participating schools or personnel at the Alabama State Department of Education.
References
Balcombe, J., (1997). Student/teacher conflict regarding animal dissection. The American Biology Teacher, 59 (1), 22-25.
Balcombe, J., (2000). The use of animals in higher education: Problems, alternatives, and recommendations. Washington, DC: The Humane Society Press.
Barr, G. & Hersog, H., (2001). Fetal pig: The high school dissection experience. Society & Animals, 8 (1), 53-69.
De Villers, R. & Monk, M., (2005). The first cut is the deepest: Reflections on the state of animal dissection in biology dissection. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37 (5), 583-600.
Downie, R. & Meadows, J. (1995). Experience with a dissection opt-out scheme in university level biology. Journal of Biological Education, 29 (3), 187-194.
Haury, D.L., (1996). Alternatives to animal dissection in school science classes. ERIC Digest (ED402155).
Maloney, R. S., (2005). Exploring virtual fetal pig dissection as a learning tool for female high school biology students. Educational Research & Evaluation, 11 (6), 591-603.
Millett, K. & Lock, R. (1992). GCSE students’ attitudes toward animal use: some implications for biology/science teachers. Journal of Biological Education, 26 (3), 204-208.
Orlans, F. B. (1991). Use of animals in education: Policy and practice in the United States. Journal of Biological Education, 25 (1), 27-32.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. (2000). Dissections: Lessons in cruelty. Norfolk, VA: Author.
Predavec, M. (2001). Evaluation of E-Rat, a computer-based rat dissection, in terms of students learning outcomes. Educational Research, 35 (2), 75-80.
Roscoe, N. (2007). Dissection: A dying art? Biologist, 54 (1) 6.
Concerning the Use of Live Versus Alternative Dissecting Techniques
A proposal presented to the faculty of Troy University in partial fulfillments of the requirements for EDU6691
By
Jessica A. Smith
Chapter I
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
“Close to six million vertebrate animals are dissected in US high schools alone each year (Balcombe, 2000, p. 24). Is it truly necessary to allow high school students to continue to dissect animals when there are numerous alternatives available? Biology is the study of life. To study life, students do not have to view animals after death. Many studies have proven that dissection alternatives can be more effective or at least equal to live dissections. Alternatives are also less expensive than embalmed specimens. In order to understand the current state of dissection in American high schools, one must first understand the history of dissection.
Dissection has been the traditional way to expose and learn about animal structure. Dissection has an ancient and classical lineage, the documentation of which can be traced back to Aristotle’s work on such things as embryology, and Galen’s publication of the results of his investigations on animals. Galen never carried out vivisection on gladiators, but he benefitted from the detailed knowledge gained by those who attended gladiator’s injuries. Vesalius (born Andreas van Wesel, 1514-1564) in the 16th century was perhaps the greatest anatomist. He took advantage of the papal ruling of 1540 that cadavers of those who had committed sins that would condemn them to hell could be used for dissection. Even then, the theological problems associated with the resurrection of the body continued to limit the supply of human corpses in Europe. In the early 19th century, Burke and Hare of Edinburgh became among the most celebrated suppliers of bodies for a medical school as they turned to murder to maintain their trade (De Villers & Monk, 2005, p. 584).
Dissection continues to provide valuable experience for individuals entering the medical field. However, “the Humane Society of the United States found that for a typical school’s needs, the cost of providing animal specimens for dissection was often greater than the cost of purchasing a range of reusable alternative materials” (Balcombe, 2000, pg. 44). Due to current proration in Alabama schools, any program that saves a significant amount of money should be considered. Additionally, many organizations provide dissection alternatives on a free loan program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to determine if the use of animal dissection in the Alabama high school Biology classroom has any effect on student’s scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Biology section. The Biology section is composed entirely of biology questions. The effect of alternatives to dissection, such as computer programs, models, and videos, on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Science section will also be examined. Gathering this information will help school districts decide whether to continue to use live dissections in the classroom or to choose other alternatives.
Significance of the Study
Many students do not like the idea of dissection and refuse to participate. According to Millett and Lock (1992), only 32% of secondary school learners indicated that they would find dissecting a dead animal interesting; 73% thought that it was wrong to breed animals for dissection; and 38% said they would object to any animal material being used for dissection. Clearly, the opinions of students are not being considered. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the continued use of dissection in the classroom.
Definition of Terms
Alabama Graduation Exam: tests high school students on an eleventh-grade level. It includes sections on language, reading comprehension, math, biology, and social studies. To receive a diploma from the State of Alabama, a student must pass all sections of the exam and complete the required Carnegie units of credit. Students have at least five chances to pass the test, once as a sophomore, once as a junior, and three times as a senior.
Dissection: The process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the function and relationship of its components.
Dissection alternatives: Alternatives include virtual dissection software (CD-ROM), plastic models, pictorial atlases, videos, dissection charts, and dissection manuals. All provide accurate representation of the internal anatomy of an animal.
Live dissection: The process of disassembling a live or preserved animal specimen in order to learn about its internal anatomy.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
The proposed study will use a quantitative methodology to investigate the effects of live versus alternative dissecting techniques on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. The schools researched will be found in the state of Alabama. An equal number of schools using live dissection and those using dissection alternatives will be examined. School size, socioeconomic levels, race and gender distribution will also be equal in schools researched.
Hypothesis
Students using alternative dissection methods in the Biology classrooms will perform as well or better on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam Biology section than students who perform live dissections.
Chapter II
Literature Review
A growing number of students in the United States are refusing to perform dissections in their high school Biology classroom. According to Millett and Lock (1992), 83.5 percent of high school students surveyed felt that alternatives to animal experimentation be found. In an age of increasing environmental awareness, more emphasis will continue to be placed on the preservation of animal species. Orlans (1991) states that the concerns range from inhumane treatment of animals by the supply industry and the depletion of natural populations of affected species to concerns about the emotional responses of students who are ”turned off” to biology because of a dislike of dissection. Alternatives to dissection have been proven to be highly effective in high school Biology classrooms.
Concerns about live dissection
Often animals used in the classroom have been taken off the street, purchased from animal shelters, or bred specifically for the purpose. The most commonly dissected animals include cats, dogs, fetal pigs, rats, bony fish, sharks, crayfish, earthworms, starfish and frogs. Additionally, frogs are often pulled from the wild. This is especially discouraging due to the chytrid fungus that continues to wipe out entire species of frogs. Balcombe (2000) states that animals to be used for dissections are treated without respect and euthanized in an inhumane manner.
The acquisition of animals used for dissection is not regulated. Animals have been taken off the streets, where they could be someone’s pet. According to Balcombe (2000), in a large seizure of embalmbed cats in Mexico, the man in charge of collecting the cats admitted that a large portion of them were probably owned. The same is true for dogs. Also, cats and dogs can be purchased from animal shelters where they were euthanized. Due to the pet overpopulation, there is a surplus of pets that cannot be placed in a new home. However, most shelters profit from this. They sell euthanized cats and dogs to biological supply companies, who then sell them to schools. Often, animals are bred specifically for the purpose of dissection. This is true of certain types of frogs, as well as fetal pigs. After slaughter, the fetal pigs of pregnant sows are removed and sold to biological supply companies.
Of a major concern, is the removal of animals from the wild to satisfy dissection demands. Frog populations have continued to decline over the past decade. Removal of species from the wild contributes to this decline. “Efforts to turn the tide for frogs should involve both curbing human exploitation of wild populations and fostering appreciation and respect for their kind” (Balcombe, 2000, p. 33). Dogfish sharks are also taken from the wild in such large numbers that the species in on the verge on endangerment.
Unfortunately, animals that are to be euthanized for dissection purposes are treated inhumanely before, and during the euthanization process. In a People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) investigation of Carolina Biological Supply Company (PETA, 2000), numerous counts of animal cruelty were observed. Animals were denied food and water while being kept in cramped cages. Some animals did not die in the gas chambers used for euthanization, but were embalmed anyway. Others animals were drowned in buckets of water if they escaped the gas chamber alive. Such disrespect for animal life undermines the very idea of biological study.
Furthermore, high school students are beginning to foster a greater awareness of environmental issues. Along with this comes compassion for animals. This compassion causes many students to be very distressed at the idea of mutilating an animal. In fact, dissection seems to “desensitize individuals toward the treatment of other species” (Barr & Herzog, 2000, p. 67). If students are taught that they have a right to dominion over animals, then they will continue to foster that belief instead of working to preserve the balance of Earth’s ecosystems.
Alternatives to live dissection
There are many alternative to live dissections available. Many CD-ROM programs, such as CatLab exist that simulate the actual step-by-step performance of dissection. They allow students to make cuts in the specimen using the mouse and cursor. Some programs also offer three-deminsional views inside the body. Three-dimensional models made of plastic, can provide tactile and spatial experiences not present in computer programs. Such models allow students to see accurately sized representations of body parts and systems. There are also life-size models of the human body available. Additionally, there are videos, charts, workbooks, and picture atlases available for classroom use.
Effectiveness of dissection alternatives
Numerous studies have found that alternatives to dissection are very effective. Downie and Meadows (1995) examined the test results of 10 undergraduate biology students who had the choice to dissect a rat or use alternative models, charts and demonstrators. Students recorded exactly the same mean score on the test, regardless of the method they used. Additionally, in a study carried out by Predavec (2001), students who completed a computer-based rat dissection scored 74 percentage points better on a test than students completing the conventional dissection.
Malony (2005), studied 224 studnets enrolled in an all-girl high school. Students who completed the virtual dissection scored significantly higher on practical and objective tests that were used to measure knowledge acquisition. Dissection alternatives have proven to be effective instructional tools.
Popularity of live dissection
Students in the United States continue to dissect animals in the classroom even though it has been virtually eliminated in many other countries. For example, “dissection of whole organisms in school biology classes in Britain has all but ceased, largely due to ethical concerns surrounding the fact that these organisms were specifically bred for the purpose” (Roscoe, 2007, p. 6). It seems as though the United States will soon follow suit. According to Haury (1996), ever since the California Supreme Court supported the refusal of a student to dissect a frog in a high school biology class in 1987, there has been a steady decline in dissection.
Cost comparison of live dissection and dissection alternatives
“Teachers and administrators often cite the cost of alternatives as a reason for their not being implemented” (Balcombe, 1997, p.22). In fact, animal dissection is often more expensive. This is because preserved animal specimens must be purchased every year. Alternatives such as videos , models, and computer programs can be purchased once, updated as needed, and used repeatedly. Balcombe (2000), compares the cost of live cat dissection versus alternative dissection methods for a three-year period. Estimates are based on a class size of thirty students with the teacher having three classes that dissect per year. The lowest total cost of a live cat dissection is $4,991. This estimate includes 135 animals (2 students per cat), a 64-page dissection manual (30) and supplies (scalpels, scissors, formaldehyde, etc.). The total cost estimate for alternatives would be $1,865. This estimate includes 2 anatomy models, a dissection video, CatWorks program (4), CatLab CD-ROM (4), a 64-page dissection manual (30), and a VCR or DVD player if needed. The savings over a three-year period when choosing alternatives over live dissections is $3,126.
Chapter III
Methodology
Methods
A quantitative study will be performed to test if there is a significant difference between student performance on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam and the use of live or alternative dissecting techniques. Data will be collected from the individual schools participating as well as the Alabama State Department of Education. A statistical analysis of the scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be performed. Results should be reliable, because every student that takes the Graduation Exam has identical questions.
Research Questions
When collecting data, the researcher should consider the following questions:
1. Are there significant differences in Biology scores on the Alabama High School Graduation Exam of students who participated in live dissection in Biology class compared to students who participated in alternative dissection techniques in Biology class?
2. Does gender influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
3. Does race influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
4. Does socioeconomic status influence scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE when students participate in live or alternative dissection techniques?
5. Does school funding influence the use of live or alternative dissection techniques in the Biology classroom?
Population
The population involved in this study will consist of students in Alabama high schools who have taken Biology, either using live dissection or alternative dissecting techniques, and have also taken the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam. An equal number of students from both categories will be compared. The student population is diverse and will vary in age, race, and socioeconomic status.
Data Collection
Student scores on the Biology Section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be gathered from participating schools or from the Alabama State Department of Education. The students will be grouped into two groups: students who participated in live dissections in Biology class and students who participated in alternative dissection techniques in Biology class.
Instrumentation
The instrument used in the study to compare the effects of live versus alternative dissecting techniques on the Biology Section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam will be an ANOVA, where three variables will be compared and a paired sample t-test, in which the means of the two variables are compared. The means of students who participated in live dissection in Biology class will be compared to the means of students who participated in alternative dissecting techniques in Biology class.
Data Analysis
The study will use statistical software, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), to analyze the mean scores of the two groups of students. A t-test and an ANOVA will be used to determine if there is a significant difference between scores on the Biology section of the Alabama High School Graduation Exam (AHSGE) of students participating in live dissections compared to students who participated in alternative dissecting techniques. The data will be analyzed to determine if there is a significant difference between student performance on the AHSGE and the type of dissection technique they used.
Ethical Treatment of Human Subjects
The identities of students will remain anonymous. Only test scores will be analyzed. A permission form for individual students will not be necessary as long as the researcher has gained proper legal access to student scores on the Biology section of the AHSGE from administrators at participating schools or personnel at the Alabama State Department of Education.
References
Balcombe, J., (1997). Student/teacher conflict regarding animal dissection. The American Biology Teacher, 59 (1), 22-25.
Balcombe, J., (2000). The use of animals in higher education: Problems, alternatives, and recommendations. Washington, DC: The Humane Society Press.
Barr, G. & Hersog, H., (2001). Fetal pig: The high school dissection experience. Society & Animals, 8 (1), 53-69.
De Villers, R. & Monk, M., (2005). The first cut is the deepest: Reflections on the state of animal dissection in biology dissection. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37 (5), 583-600.
Downie, R. & Meadows, J. (1995). Experience with a dissection opt-out scheme in university level biology. Journal of Biological Education, 29 (3), 187-194.
Haury, D.L., (1996). Alternatives to animal dissection in school science classes. ERIC Digest (ED402155).
Maloney, R. S., (2005). Exploring virtual fetal pig dissection as a learning tool for female high school biology students. Educational Research & Evaluation, 11 (6), 591-603.
Millett, K. & Lock, R. (1992). GCSE students’ attitudes toward animal use: some implications for biology/science teachers. Journal of Biological Education, 26 (3), 204-208.
Orlans, F. B. (1991). Use of animals in education: Policy and practice in the United States. Journal of Biological Education, 25 (1), 27-32.
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. (2000). Dissections: Lessons in cruelty. Norfolk, VA: Author.
Predavec, M. (2001). Evaluation of E-Rat, a computer-based rat dissection, in terms of students learning outcomes. Educational Research, 35 (2), 75-80.
Roscoe, N. (2007). Dissection: A dying art? Biologist, 54 (1) 6.
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